Daily Prelims Notes 14 August 2023

Daily Prelims Notes

14 August 2023

Table Of Contents

1. Bulldozing the law and the Constitution
2. How the Indian Penal Code came into existence under British colonial rule
3. Yelagiri Hut: A Testament to Hill Tribe History
4. Karnataka CM’s Request for Amendments to Drought Manual
5. 14 States yet to join Centre’s flagship education scheme
6. GST as share of GDP on a par with personal income tax
7. Indian Post Office Act 1898, to be repealed
8. Unviable Arunachal hydro projects have been dumped on Central PSUs
9. Metagenome sequencing is transforming pathogen surveillance
10. Centrifugal force – meet the resistance
11. Why is India’s Defence Ministry ditching Microsoft Windows for Ubuntu-based Maya OS?

1. Bulldozing the law and the Constitution

Subject :Polity

Section: Constitution

Context: The recent Nuh Violence.

What was the issue:

• After the Nuh violence the demolition of dwellings and business establishments of people who are accused in criminal cases especially offenses having communal sensitivity were carried out without following the procedure as established by law.
• The Punjab and Haryana High Court made a rare interference by taking judicial notice suo motu and stayed the demolition drive.
• The High Court’s question whether an exercise of ethnic cleansing is being carried out by the State brings us to the heart of the issue.

What is ethnic cleansing:

• Ethnic cleansing is the systematic forced removal of ethnic, racial, and religious groups from a given area, with the intent of making a region ethnically homogeneous.
• Along with direct removal, extermination, deportation or population transfer, it also includes indirect methods aimed at forced migration by coercing the victim group to flee and preventing its return, such as murder, rape, and property destruction.
• It constitutes a crime against humanity and may also fall under the Genocide Convention, even as ethnic cleansing has no legal definition under international criminal law.

What is genocide:

• The United Nations first defined genocide in 1948 in the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. The treaty outlines five acts that can constitute genocide if they are done “with the intent to destroy an ethnic, national, racial or religious group”:
  • Killing members of the group
  • Causing serious bodily or mental harm
  • Deliberately inflicting conditions of life calculated to bring about the group’s physical destruction in whole or in part
  • Imposing measures intended to prevent births
  • Forcibly transferring children
• To qualify as genocide, the actions must be done with intent to eliminate an entire group of people.Without provable intent, a group or individual can still be guilty of “crimes against humanity” or “ethnic cleansing” but not genocide.
• The first person found guilty of genocide was the former mayor of Rwanda’s Taba commune in 1998.

What Indian Law states:

• Ethnic cleansing is not defined by the Indian Penal Code or international law.
• Its first use is attributed to a UN appointed Commission of Experts (1992) chaired by Prof. Cherif Bassiouni, a father figure in international criminal law, mandated to look into the war crimes in former Yugoslavia.
• Despite the lack of statutory recognition, any such subversive act is grossly inimical to the constitutional guarantees under Part III of India’s Constitution. Hence, the concern and judicial intervention under Article 226 of the Constitution of India.

What is the law and procedure:

• Article 21 given in the constitution guarantees the ‘Protection of Life and Personal Liberty’ and it is one of the most important fundamental rights, that no person should be deprived of his life and personal liberty by anyone except according to the procedure established by law.
• Right to life includes the right to live with dignity, health, pollution-free environment
• In case of MANEKA GANDHI V. UNION OF INDIA a seven-judge bench observed that ‘personal liberty’ under article 21 comprises of various rights such as it must be as per the procedure established by law and it must be according to Article 14 which is equality before law and equal protection before the law and within the territory of India it even says that no person is above law and it should not be arbitrary.
• The Supreme Court had also expanded the scope of procedure established by law by ruling that such procedure has to be “fair, just and reasonable, not fanciful, oppressive or arbitrary”, thereby introducing the principle of “procedural due process”.
• There are many statutory bodies established by the Government of India like autonomous public body National Human Rights Commission of India and under this, there is an act known as Protection of Human Rights Act 1993 and it is responsible for the protection and for giving a recommendation of human rights.
• But the contradictory thing is that ethnic violence contradicts this right given under article 21 because ethnic cleansing is the removal of the particular minority community from a particular geographical area.

The rule of law or rule by law:

• While the rule of law is declared a basic feature of the Constitution, rule by law is the antithesis of all that is represented by rule of law.
• The rule of law is a government run by law, not men.
• The roots of the idea of a rule of law can be seen in Article 39 of Magna Carta (1215) that declares that “No freemen shall be taken or imprisoned or disseised or exiled or in any way destroyed, nor will we go upon him nor send upon him, except by the lawful judgment of his peers or by the law of the land.”
• This civilisational journey has since then found its reflection in Article 21 of Indian constitution and had its contours expanded by the Supreme Court. This progressive journey gets barbarically reversed when rule by law comes into play.
• Rule by law is when the law is used as an instrument of suppression, oppression and social control in the course of implementing a political agenda. For e.g the administrative act of demolishing dwellings and buildings without issuing notice and hearing the affected, to further selective social control necessarily warrants judicial interference.

2. How the Indian Penal Code came into existence under British colonial rule

Subject :Polity

Section: Constitution

Context

• Union Home Minister Amit Shah introduced the bills on August 11 in the Lok Sabha.
• The proposed bills are the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita Bill, the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita Bill, and the Bharatiya Sakshya Bill.
• The bills aim to replace the colonial-era Indian Penal Code (IPC), Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC), and the Indian Evidence Act.

Historical Background of the IPC

• The IPC was enacted in 1860 during the aftermath of the Rebellion of 1857.
• It was conceptualized by Thomas Babington Macaulay, a prominent British figure.

Critique of Current Laws

• Amit Shah’s criticism of the current laws highlights their colonial origins.
• The assertion that these laws were created to serve British interests is a thought-provoking critique.
• The IPC, CrPC, and Evidence Act were enacted during the British colonial rule in India, which influences their inherent biases.

Historical Context of the Indian Penal Code

• Enacted in 1860, the IPC came into force on January 1, 1862.
• Its status as the longest-surviving code in the common law world underscores its historical significance.
• The IPC’s formulation occurred during a period of British colonial dominance, shaping its underlying principles.

Need for Codification

• The expansion of British colonial control led to administrative challenges in India.
• The legal landscape comprised various sources of law, including Parliamentary Charters, Acts, Company Regulations, and customary laws.
• Codification was viewed as a way to facilitate modernization and align with the British “civilizing mission.”

Influence of Jeremy Bentham

• Macaulay drew inspiration from the ideas of Jeremy Bentham, an English philosopher.
• Bentham’s advocacy for a comprehensive and utilitarian-based legal code influenced Macaulay’s approach.
• Bentham’s concern about the complexity of England’s legal system spurred his call for a “complete code of laws.”
• Barry Wright’s book “Macaulay’s Indian Penal Code: Historical Context and Originating Principles” provides insights into the influence of Bentham’s ideas.

Macaulay’s Drafting of IPC

• The British Parliament’s 1833 Government of India Act (charter act) initiated the process of British rule organization in India.
• A law commission, led by Macaulay, was established to modernize laws and colonial governance.
• Macaulay’s focus on criminal law led to the completion of the initial IPC version in 1837.
• The IPC’s foundation on British common law marked a departure from existing Indian legal practices.
• David Skuy’s book “Macaulay and the Indian Penal Code of 1862: The Myth of the Inherent Superiority and Modernity of the English Legal System Compared to India’s Legal System in the Nineteenth Century” offers insights into the IPC’s origins.

Rebellion of 1857 and IPC

• The Rebellion of 1857, also known as the Indian Mutiny or Sepoy Mutiny, was a widespread uprising against British rule.
• Multiple Governors-General, such as Auckland and Ellenborough, resisted legal reforms prior to the Rebellion.
• The Rebellion challenged the legitimacy of British colonial rule and prompted a shift in governance from the East India Company to direct British Crown control.
• The IPC’s enactment helped address concerns about legitimacy, British rule, and the application of law in India.

Thomas Babington Macaulay

• A 19th-century British historian, politician, and administrator, played a significant role in shaping India’s education system, legal framework, and cultural landscape.
• Charter act of 1833 : Indian Law Commission
  • As per the act, an Indian Law Commission was established.
  • The first Law Commission had Lord Macaulay as its chairman.
  • It sought to codify all Indian law.

Educational Reforms and “Minute on Indian Education” (1835)

• Advocated for English education in India to propagate British culture and values.
• Macaulay’s “Minute on Indian Education” proposed teaching English language and literature.
• Aimed to create a class of anglicized Indians loyal to British rule.
• Emphasized the practical benefits of English education for Indians in government positions.

Legal Reforms and Indian Penal Code (IPC)

• Led the drafting and enactment of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) in 1860.
• Worked to create a unified legal framework based on British common law principles.

3. Yelagiri Hut: A Testament to Hill Tribe History

Subject History

Section: Art and culture

Introduction

• Over 200 Malaiyali tribespeople built clay huts on Yelagiri hill 200 years ago.
• System for shelter, storage, farming, and cattle.
• Only one antiquated hut remains today, highlighting tribe’s evolution.

The Last Traditional Hut Owner

• Govinthasamy owns and maintains the last remaining hut.
• Tribe’s huts replaced by concrete houses over time.

Evolution of Malaiyali Tribe

• Malaiyali tribe settled in upper Nillavur region of Yelagiri.
• Transition from foraging to cultivating food.
• Red loam clay abundant in hills used for hut construction.
• Simple 16×22 feet one-room structures built.

Significance of Red Clay

• Red clay used for hut construction and burial rituals.
• House built with red clay on teak wood structure.
• Thatched roof made of bamboo leaves, waxed with cow dung.
• Roof’s deceivingly small appearance hides spacious interior.

Hut’s Multi-Purpose Function

• Originally a living space, turned into seed storage.
• Seeds collected before sowing season stored in hut.
• Space occupied by grains after harvest.

Unique Stilt Structure

• Hut stands on stilt-like structure made of teak wood.
• Keeps house two feet above ground to prevent flooding.
• Stilts offer extra storage space for grains or poultry.

Cultural Preservation and Evolution

• Hut attracts tourists interested in tribe’s culture.
• Reflects transition from traditional to modern lifestyle.
• Tribe adapted to changing times with education, jobs, resources.

Anthropological Survey of India (AnSI) recreates tribal huts at regional centres

• Focus on Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) and their heritage.

Variety of Huts: Diverse Insights into Tribal Lives

• Huts depict different tribal communities’ lifestyles.
• Distinctive designs and materials used in construction.
• Provides rare insight into inaccessible tribal cultures.

Authenticity and Involvement

• Huts designed authentically, using tribal materials.
• Huts constructed with participation from local tribal communities.
• Aims to accurately depict tribal lifestyle and practices.

Examples of Recreated Huts

• Jarawa Tribe’schadda hut with traditional baskets, bows, and arrows.
• Shompen Tribe’s hut with paste from pandamus fruit (food source during scarcity).
• Nicobarese Tribe’s beehive-shaped huts, preserving traditional craftsmanship.
• Dorla Tribe’s participation in constructing their traditional home.
• Betta Kuruba Tribe constructing their hut in Mysore.
• Use of monoliths to represent Khasi culture at AnSI’s Shillong office.

PM PVTG Development Mission: 

• Part of ‘Reaching The Last Mile‘ initiative in Union Budget 2023-24.
• Aims: Enhance lives of 75 PVTGs in 31,000 villages across 18 states and 1 UT.
• Focus: Basic needs (housing, water), healthcare, education, livelihoods.
• Budget: Rs 15,000 crore over 3 years from Development Action Plan for Scheduled Tribes.
• Targets: Benefit 3.5 lakh tribal people, reducing disparities.

Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs):

• Origin: Designated as “Primitive Tribal Groups” by the Dhebar Commission in 1973.
• Renamed as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in 2006 by the Indian Government.
• Characteristics: highly vulnerable, inhabit remote areas with limited infrastructure and administrative support.
• Traits:
  • Declining or stagnant population,
  • Low levels of literacy,
  • Pre-agricultural level of technology and
  • Economic backwardness.

Identification: Among 705 Scheduled Tribes, 75 groups are classified as PVTGs due to their unique vulnerabilities.

4. Karnataka CM’s Request for Amendments to Drought Manual

Subject :Geography

Section: Physical geography

Introduction

• Chief Minister Siddaramaiah urges Centre to amend the Manual for Drought Management 2016 (updated in 2020) for drought declaration by States.
• Emphasizes the need for different parameters to declare drought in 14 agro-climatic zones in Karnataka due to erratic weather conditions influenced by climate change.

Current Rainfall Situation

• Karnataka’s rainfall deficit: 234 mm received against the normal 336 mm in the current southwest monsoon season.
• Delayed monsoon arrival and 56% deficiency in June.
• Erratic rainfall distribution and intensity throughout the season.

Impact on Agriculture

• Farmers facing critical issues due to failure in meeting existing parameters for declaring drought.
• Lack of support like input subsidy for sowing failure or mid-season crop failure due to weak rains.

Proposed Revisions

• Need to revise existing drought declaration parameters to account for diverse agro-climatic conditions in Karnataka’s 14 zones.
• Current one-size-fits-all approach insufficient for capturing regional variations.
• Importance of developing region-specific criteria based on local ecological factors, water availability, and agricultural practices.

Reevaluating Meteorological Drought

• Meteorological, agricultural, and hydrological drought integration in the current manual.
• Need to factor in erratic monsoon distribution.
• Impact of early monsoon rainfall deficiency on agriculture even if it recovers later.
• Highlighting the discrepancy between IMD’s 10% criterion for a nationwide drought year and Karnataka’s 60% rainfall deviation criterion.

Redefined Dry Spells

• Suggestion to redefine dry spells by considering factors like soil type, crop type, temperature, and vegetative state.
• Call for reduction in the time duration needed to declare dry spells.
• Mention of obstacle posed by the condition on sowing completion for declaring early drought.

Review of Impact Indicators

• Importance of reviewing impact indicators such as groundwater drought index, remote sensing indicators, and soil moisture impact indicator.
• Consideration of alignment with SDRF/NDRF norms.

Crop Insurance and Relief Assistance

• Call for synchronizing timeline of crop insurance disbursement with input subsidy (relief assistance).

Manual for Drought Management 2016 (updated in 2020) 

• Ministry of Agriculture Cooperation and Farmers Welfare, along with NIDM, NRSC, and MNCFC, introduces Remote Sensing technology-based Drought Manual 2016.
• Aim: Improved declaration, management, early warning, and mitigation of drought.

Remote Sensing Parameters

• Rainfall Based:
  • Rainfall Amount and Deviation.
  • Rainfall Distribution (Dry Spell).
  • Standard Precipitation Index.
• Crop Based:
  • Sowing Progression.
  • Crop Damage/Crop Yield.
  • Moisture Availability (Moisture Adequacy Index, Plant Available Water Content, etc.).
• Satellite Based:
  • Normalised Difference Vegetation Index.
  • Normalised Difference Wetness Index.
  • Vegetation Condition Index.
  • Soil Moisture.
• Hydrological Parameters:
  • Stream Flow.
  • Reservoir Level.
  • Groundwater Level.
• Socio-economic Parameters:
  • Availability of Food, Fodder, & Water.
  • Demand for Work.
  • Migration.

Three-Tier Drought Declaration Process

• Tier-I: Mandatory Indicator
  • Rainfall-based parameters are essential and mandatory for drought assessment.
  • Trigger-I area declaration based on satisfying mandatory indicators.
• Tier-II: Impact Indicators
  • Remote Sensing, Crop Situation, Soil Moisture, Hydrological indicators.
  • State may select any three of the four types for assessing drought intensity and making judgments.
• Verification: Ground Trothing
  • Ground-truthing to verify remote sensing results.

Declaration Steps

• Step-I:
  • If mandatory indicators are met, Trigger-I area is declared as drought-affected.
• Step-II:
  • State considers three impact indicators for assessing drought intensity and making a judgment.
• Step-III:
  • State conducts sample survey for ground-truthing.
  • Drought declaration through official notification, specifying geographic extent and administrative units.

Drought Timeline

• Kharif Drought:
  • Declaration not later than 30th October.
• Rabi Drought:
  • Declaration by 31st March.

Agro-Climatic Zones of India
The erstwhile Planning Commission (Present NITI Aayog) taking into account several scientific studies, on regionalisation of the agricultural economy recommended developing agricultural planning based on agro-climatic regions.

15 agroclimatic zones in India as categorized by the Planning Commission, along with their main features:

5. 14 States yet to join Centre’s flagship education scheme

Subject :Schemes

Introduction

• Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal among 14 States and Union Territories not signed PM-USHA scheme  MoU with Union Education Ministry.
• MoU mandates implementation of National Education Policy (NEP) for availing funds of ₹13,000 crore over 3 years.
• Opposition-ruled States express concerns due to 40% budget responsibility and no extra funds for NEP reforms.
• Centre engaging in discussions to resolve differences with dissenting States.

PM-USHA scheme: Enhancing Higher Education Quality

• PM-USHA (Pradhan Mantri Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan) aims to improve State University higher education quality.
• Involves curriculum changes, teacher training, infrastructure enhancement, accreditation, and employability improvement.
• Outlay of ₹12,926.10 crore allocated between 2023-24 and 2025-26.
• MoU signifies States’ willingness to participate in PM-USHA for better implementation.

Importance of NEP Reforms and Funding Concerns

• MoU mandates States to implement administrative, academic, and governance reforms in NEP.
• Reforms include academic credit bank, entry-exit flexibility, Samarth e-governance platform.
• Some States express concern over lack of extra funds for NEP changes.

Evolution of RUSA to PM-USHA: 

• Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA) aimed to enhance access, equity, and excellence in state higher education with efficiency, transparency, and responsiveness.
• Launched in 2013 (Phase 1) and 2018 (Phase 2).
• Transitioned to Pradhan Mantri Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (PM-USHA) due to National Education Policy (NEP) influence.

Coverage and Expansion:

• Encompasses government and government-aided institutions in States and UTs.
• Responds to increasing demand for higher education and growth in institutions and students.

Higher Education Landscape:

As per AISHE report 2020-21:

• 1,113 Universities, 43,796 Colleges, 11,296 Stand Alone Institutions.
• 78.6% Colleges privately managed.
• Enrolment around 4.13 crores, with 48.7% females.
• Majority (78.09%) enrolled in Under-Graduate, 11.5% in Post-Graduation.

RUSA’s Impact:

• RUSA 1.0 & 2.0 benefited around 2500 institutions, focusing on 16 components.
• Approx. 1000 projects completed, rest ongoing.
• Improved Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER), accreditation, student-teacher ratio.

PM-USHA’s Objectives:

• Address gaps identified by NITI Aayog’s Evaluation Report.
• Enhance graduate employability through market-linked courses, internships, skill-based education.
• Introduce technology and distance learning for access and quality.
• Improve NAAC accreditation grades, emphasize quality, e-learning.
• Promote community participation, gender sensitization.

Alignment with National Education Policy (NEP):

NEP identifies key challenges:

• Fragmented ecosystem, limited cognitive skill development.
• Early specialization, limited access in disadvantaged areas.
• Teacher and institutional autonomy limitations.
• Insufficient research emphasis and governance issues.

Empowering PM-USHA with NEP Principles:

• PM-USHA guided by NEP’s pillars: accessibility, quality, equity, accountability, affordability.
• Emphasizes skill-based education, employability, emerging courses, industry-academia linkage, accreditation, choice-based credit system, academic reforms, technology integration.
• Prioritizes “Focus Districts” for targeted development.

PM-USHA Focus Areas: 

1. Equity & Inclusion:
   • Address disparities in enrollment.
   • Promote diversity and multilingualism.
2. Quality Education:
   • Innovate curricula and pedagogy.
   • Transform institutions, enhance skills.
3. Accreditation & Quality:
   • Boost trust through accreditation.
   • Support institutions’ improvement.
4. Digital Advancements:
   • Embrace technology for learning.
   • Enhance digital infrastructure.
5. Employability Enhancement:
   • Forge industry ties for skills.
   • Track employability outcomes.

Institutional Structure:

A. Central Level Structure

1. National Mission Authority (NMA)
   • Chaired by Hon’ble Education Minister, GoI
2. Project Approval Board (PAB)
   • Chaired by Secretary (Higher Education), GoI
3. National Project Directorate (NPD)
4. Technical Support Group (TSG)

B. State Level Structure

1. State Higher Education Council (SHEC)
2. State Project Directorate (SPD)
3. State Technical Support Group (State-TSG)

C. Institutional Level Structure

1. Board of Governors (BOGs)
2. Project Monitoring Unit (PMU)

Selection via Challenge Method

A. First Stage:

• States/UTs sign MoU with MoE.
• MoU encompasses State commitments:
  1. Implementation of NEP reforms
  2. Support for all government and government-aided institutions in pursuing accreditation
  3. Adoption of Guidelines on National Credit Framework (NCrF) and Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) for Four Year Undergraduate Programme (FYUP).

B. Second Stage:

• State Governments shortlist Universities, Colleges, and Districts.
• Priority accorded to focus districts for receiving support under:
  • Component 2: ‘Grants to Strengthen Universities’
  • Component 3: ‘Grants to Strengthen Colleges’
• Further, State Governments choose focus districts for:
  • Component 4: ‘New Model Degree College’
  • Component 5: ‘Gender Inclusion and Equity Initiative’

C. Third Stage:

• Ministry of Higher Education evaluates all submitted proposals, assisted by Technical Support Group.
• Proposals undergo examination, appraisal, and approval by the Project Approval Board (PAB).
• Selection criteria and past state performance form the basis for evaluation and approval.

6. GST as share of GDP on a par with personal income tax

Subject :Economy

Section: Fiscal Policy

In News: Goods & services tax (GST) as a share of gross domestic products (GDP) at the same level as personal income tax share, a report by Finance Ministry shows.

Key Points:

• GST has become the largest contributor to indirect taxes, ever since its implementation in FY 2017-18.
• Share of GST in GDP went up to 3.1 per cent in FY23 from 2.8 per cent in FY21, During the same period share of personal income tax rose from 2.5 to 3.1 per cent of GDP.
• This rise in GST is attributed to consumption demand, compliance, and some impact of inflation.  However, another view is that this trend is not leading to an overall regressive taxation regime.
• Apart from GST, indirect taxes also include Custom Duty and Central Excise Duty (levied mainly on petrol and diesel). At the same time, direct taxes comprise corporate income tax (CIT) and personal income tax (PIT).
• According to a budget document, the Direct and Indirect Tax receipts are individually estimated to grow at 10.5 per cent and 10.4 per cent, respectively.
• The overall tax (GTR) buoyancy is estimated at 0.99. As the tax collection from GST stabilises, it is likely to give a boost to the Indirect tax collection with an estimated GST buoyancy of 1.14 in the ensuing year.
• In BE 2023-24, it is estimated that the direct and indirect taxes contribute 54.4 per cent and 45.6 per cent, respectively, to Gross Tax Revenue (GTR).
• The sustained increase in GST is the cumulative impact of transparent and digital tax administration, rapid economic growth, and a boost in consumption expenditure, particularly at the lower income level in the economy. Stronger growth and high inflation has also contributed to the GST numbers.
• The increase in GST could also have some negative consequences:
  •  For example, it could lead to higher prices for goods and services, which could impact the purchasing power of consumers.
  • GST on most of the food products is either zero or taxed at low rates, so the people from the lower income strata are protected. But if the indirect tax collections overtake direct tax collections.

7. Indian Post Office Act 1898, to be repealed

Subject: Polity

Section: Legislation

In News: Post Office Bill, 2023 introduced in Rajya Sabha,  Indian Post Office Act, 1898 to be repealed.

Key Points:

•    Post Office Bill, 2023, introduced in the Rajya Sabha. It will repeal the Indian Post Office Act, 1898, and consolidate and amend the law relating to the Post Office in India.
•  Why the need for a new Act?
  • The Indian Post Office Act, 1898 was enacted in 1898 with a view to govern the functioning of the Post Office in India which was primarily related to mail services provided through the Post Office.
  • With time the services available through the Post Office have diversified beyond mails and the Post Office network has become a vehicle for delivery of a variety of citizen centric services. Further with India Post Payments Bank the postal department has entered banking too.
  • All this necessitated the repeal of the said Act and enactment of new law in its place.
• The Post Office Bill, 2023 addresses these changes and provides for a simple legislative framework to facilitate evolution of the post office into a network for delivery of citizen centric services.
• Some of the changes are as follows:
  • Empowering post offices employees to open or detain any item during transmission in the interest of national security or public safety.
  • It also prescribed immunity for post offices employees from liability in providing services, but with conditions.
  • The bill prescribes power to intercept, open or detain any item or deliver it to the customs authority.
  • Post Office will be empowered to deliver an item, received from a domestic or international source, to customs or any concerned authority in case there is suspicion of duty evasion or it is prohibited under the law.
  • The bill has a provision related with recovery of sums due in respect of services provided by the Post Office.
  • Post Office shall have the exclusive privilege of issuing postage stamps. Also, the Central Government may prescribe standards for addressing on the items, address identifiers and usage of postcodes.

8. Unviable Arunachal hydro projects have been dumped on Central PSUs

Subject :Geography

Section: Economic Geography

Context:

• The 12 hydropower projects in Arunachal Pradesh that were officially handed over to three Central public sector undertakings (CPSUs) are economically unviable, water resources experts said.

Details:

• Private companies had given up on these projects with a total installed capacity of 11,523 megawatts, which would require at least ₹1,42,000 crore to be executed by the CPSUs.
• The Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam and the North Eastern Electric Power Corporation Limited (NEEPCO) have been awarded five projects while National Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC) would handle two projects.

‘Meeting net-zero goal’:

• The development of these projects will help achieve the declared nationally determined contribution target of India’s non-fossil energy capacity to reach 500 gigawatts by 2030.

Alternative to HPPs:

• Micro hydro is a small-scale hydroelectric power generation system that typically generates up to 100 kilowatts (kW) of electricity.
• These systems use the energy of falling water to turn a turbine, which, in turn, generates electricity.
• They can be used for various applications, including powering homes, businesses, and small communities.
• Advantages of Micro hydro systems:
  • Less expensive
  • Can be located in inaccessible areas
  • Reliable source of energy to communities
  • Smaller environmental footprint
• Micro hydro systems can be classified into two main types – run-of-river and storage systems.
  • Run-of-river systems use the natural flow of water in a stream or river to generate electricity.
  • Storage systems use a reservoir to store water and release it as needed to generate electricity.

Hydro-electric Project in Northeast India:

9. Metagenome sequencing is transforming pathogen surveillance

Subject :Science and technology

Section: Health

Metagenomics:

• Metagenomics is the study of genetic material recovered directly from environmental or clinical samples by a method called sequencing. The broad field may also be referred to as environmental genomics, ecogenomics, community genomics or microbiomics.
• Metagenomics is the study of the structure and function of entire nucleotide sequences isolated and analyzed from all the organisms (typically microbes) in a bulk sample. Metagenomics is often used to study a specific community of microorganisms, such as those residing on human skin, in the soil or in a water sample.

Metagenomics technique used in SARS-CoV-2:

• Scientists didn’t go the more time-consuming microbiology route with the Covid-19 samples; instead, and in a break from tradition, they were directly subjected to genome-sequencing and bioinformatic analysis, which helped the scientists quickly identify the virus.
• This new approach – called metagenomics – was not only rapid but could also be deployed directly on patient samples, without any a priori knowledge of the infectious agent.
  • The scale of sequencing during the pandemic rendered SARS-CoV-2 one of the most sequenced organisms in global history.
• The technique and its adoption also drastically changed the way pathogen identification would be undertaken thereafter.

Difference between traditional microbiology route and Metagenomics:

• While traditional microbiologyand microbial genome sequencing and genomics rely upon cultivated clonal cultures, early environmental gene sequencing cloned specific genes (often the 16S rRNA gene) to produce a profile of diversity in a natural sample. Such work revealed that the vast majority of microbial biodiversity had been missed by cultivation-based methods.
• Because of its ability to reveal the previously hidden diversity of microscopic life, metagenomics offers a powerful lens for viewing the microbial world that has the potential to revolutionize understanding of the entire living world.
  • As the price of DNA sequencing continues to fall, metagenomics now allows microbial ecology to be investigated at a much greater scale and detail than before.
  • Recent studies use either “shotgun” or PCR directed sequencing to get largely unbiased samples of all genes from all the members of the sampled communities.

Significance of this new technique:

• The national and international organizations started implementing public health policies based on the genomic data.
  • GISAID, a popular repository on the internet to which SARS-Co-V-2 genome-sequence data could be submitted, is a testimony to such high-throughput genome surveillance activities.
  • India also initiated a national SARS-CoV-2 genome-sequencing and surveillance program supplemented by several State government and private initiatives.
• The Nigerian Centre for Disease Control applied metagenomicssequencing for pathogen surveillance and detection, and was able to identify several viruses including: Human blood-associated dicistrovirus, pegivirus C and the presence of yellow fever and mpox virus in the patients.
• The study demonstrated the power of metagenomic sequencing investigations for pathogen detection and disease diagnosis, and to inform public health outbreak responses.
• In 2022, the world witnessed a global mpox virus outbreak which fortunately ‘fizzled’ out majorly because the scientists were able to apply genome-sequencing technologies perfected during the COVID-19 pandemic to understanding the origin and spread of the mpox virus.
• Recently, the experts have used genome sequencing technologies as frontline tools to motivate the detection and surveillance of lumpy skin disease in cattle and the emergence of drug-resistant tuberculosis, among other use-cases.

Avian Influenza:

• Avian influenza viruses are another prime candidate for genome surveillance as they trigger seasonal outbreaks of avian influenza, or bird flu.
• Given the highly mobile and migratory nature of their hosts – including both wild birds and poultry – avian influenza viruses are capable of causing mass death in birds and some animals, and with little warning.
• They need to be complemented by a well-organised genomic surveillance programme so that scientists can identify which virus strains are circulating, as well as monitor the impact of vaccination.

Key to early response:

• The genome surveillance provides the sort of information that experts can use to devise an early response strategy, identify emerging viral strains, and undertake risk-based surveillance of key animal species.
• Such initiatives have also been mooted for other seasonal pathogenic viruses, including Zika and dengue.

For details of Genome sequencing: https://optimizeias.com/genomic-sequencing/

10. Centrifugal force – meet the resistance

Subject :Science and technology

Section: Msc

Centrifugal force:

• Centrifugal force is a force that an object perceives when it is moving in a curved path – always in the direction away from the center of the path of rotation.
• The centrifugal force is often called an actual force but it is really the product of inertia – the tendency for an object to maintain its state of motion.
• Unlike actual forces, which arise from an interaction between forces like gravity or magnetism, the centrifugal force arises when an object resists a change of direction. And moving on a curved path is to constantly change direction.

Use of this force:

• The concept of centrifugal force can be applied in rotating devices, such as centrifuges, centrifugal pumps, centrifugal governors, and centrifugal clutches, and in centrifugal railways, planetary orbits and banked curves, when they are analyzed in a rotating coordinate system.
• Research laboratories, the pharmaceutical and dairy industries, and the nuclear-energy sector around the world use this force in a machine called centrifuge.

Mixtures of substances are placed in small containers that are spun very fast.

11. Why is India’s Defence Ministry ditching Microsoft Windows for Ubuntu-based Maya OS?

Subject : Science and technology

Section: Awareness in IT

Context:

• India’s Defence Ministry has decided to replace Microsoft Operating System (OS) in all its computers that can connect to the Internet with Maya, an Ubuntu-based OS built locally.

Details:

• The new OS is currently being rolled out only in the Defence Ministry computers, and not the three Services.

What is kernel architecture?

• Devices powered by Microsoft’s OS run on the Windows NT kernel.
• A kernel is the core of an operating system. It runs on a computer’s Random Access Memory (RAM) and gives the device instructions on how to perform specific tasks.
• Prior to building the kernel architecture, programmers used to run codes directly on the processor.
• In the 1970s,Danish computer scientist Per Brinch Hansen pioneered the approach of splitting what needs to be done by a processor from how it executes that task, thus introducing the kernel architecture in the RC 4000 multiprogramming system.
• It separated policy from mechanism in the OS design.
• This design was monolithic, meaning a single programme contained all necessary codes to perform kernel-related tasks.
• This architecture provided rich and powerful abstraction for the underlying hardware. But it was also large and difficult to maintain as the lines of codes ran in the millions.
• Limitations in the traditional architecture led to a new kernel design called the microkernel.
• This design broke down the monolithic system into multiple small servers that communicate through a smaller kernel while giving more space for user customisations.
• This change allowed developers to run patches easily without rebooting the entire kernel. It did have some drawbacks like larger running memory space and more software interactions that reduced the computer’s performance.

About Maya OS:

• Developed by Indian government agencieswithin six months.
  • Agencies involved: Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC), and the National Informatics Centre (NIC).
• MayaOS has been named after the Sanskrit word Maya which means “illusion.”
• It is aimed at preventing malware attacks by cybercriminals who are increasingly targeting critical infrastructure and government agencies.
• The new OS will be backed by a protection system called Chakravyuh. This end point system is also being deployed in the computers that have Maya installed.
• MayaOS has a similar interface and functionality as Windows, making it easy for users to adapt to it.

Difference between Windows OS and Maya OS:

• Windows runs on a hybrid kernel architecture which is a microkernel design coupled with additional codes that help enhance performance.
• Apple’s MacOS also uses a hybrid kernel called XNU.
• And Ubuntu, a Linux OS that was used to build Maya, runs on monolithic architecture. Linux versions are called “distributions” or “distro”, and they comprise free and open-source software.
• Android is also based on the Linux kernel.

Cyber threats and malware:

• The cybersecurity firm FireEye, now rebranded as Trellix, discovered a cyber spy campaign that compromised dozens of government agencies and private organisations in the U.S.
• IT software provider SolarWinds’ network management software, Orion was hacked and replaced by malware.
• Apart from cybersecurity, the reason behind this move is to assist IT modernisation efforts.

For details on Cybersecurity:https://optimizeias.com/cyber-security/