Daily Prelims Notes 27 December 2022

December 27, 2022
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Daily Prelims Notes

27 December 2022

Table Of Contents

1. Governor delaying nod to quota Bills, says Baghel

Subject: Polity

Context:

Article 200 of the Indian Constitution provides provisions regarding the powers of the Governor when a bill is passed by the state legislature.
Under Article 200, there are four courses open to a Governor to whom a Bill passed by the State Legislature is presented for assent. The Governor assents, or withholds assent, or reserves the Bill for the consideration of the President, or returns the Bill (if not a Money Bill) for reconsideration, with his message.
When a bill other than money bill is presented before Governor for his assent, he either gives assent to the bill, withhold his assent to the bill or return the bill for reconsideration of houses.
If the bill is passed again by state legislature with or without amendments, he has to give his assent or reserve the bill for consideration of President.
The Governor cannot send money bill back for reconsideration because the money bill would usually be introduced with prior assent of Governor only.
In case the money bill reserved for Presidents assent, the President has to state whether he is giving assent or withholding his assent.
The Constitution does not furnish any guidance to the Governor that in which matters he should accord his assent and in which matters he should withhold assent.

Article 201

Options for President on Bills reserved by Governor

When a bill passed by a state legislature is reserved by the governor for consideration of the President, the President can:

Give his assent to the bill
Withhold his assent to the bill
Direct the governor to return the bill (if it is not a money bill) for reconsideration of the state legislature.
It should be noted here that it is not obligatory for the President to give his assent even if the bill is again passed by the state legislature and sent again to him for his consideration.
There is no timeline prescribed for even the President, under Article 201 of the Constitution, to decide on the outcome of the Bill. Even as there is no timeline for the President to grant assent, there is a timeline of six months applicable to the State Assembly to reconsider the Bill if the President decides to refer it back to the House.
The President under Article 201 shall either assent to the Bill or withhold his assent. There is no compulsion that the President should “act as soon as possible after presentation”

2. World Economic League Table (WELT)

Subject :Economy

Context:

The Centre for Economics and Business Research (CEBR)- a UK-based economics consultancy, predicted that India will rise from fifth place in the World Economic League Table (WELT) in 2022 to third by 2037.

Details:

Despite decelerating global demand and tightening monetary policy India is expected to grow in the fiscal year 2022-23 at 6.8%.
The report noted that over the next five years, the annual rate of GDP growth is expected to average 6.4% and to average 6.5% in the subsequent nine years.
India had an estimated PPP-adjusted GDP per capita of $8,293 in 2022-classifying it as a lower middle-income country.
- PPP GDP is gross domestic product converted to international dollars using purchasing power parity rates.

Positive Prognosis:

Rebound in economic activity led by a rise in domestic demand.
The near-term growth outlook for the Indian economy is supported by domestic drivers i.e. low share of external sector around 20.1% to India’s GDP.
Inflation in India had been lower than in most other large economies and mainly driven by food inflation- transitory in nature.
The twin balance sheet problem looks to be on the mend with corporate debt-to-GDP at its lowest in nearly a decade and a half and low NPA.
Reducing input cost pressures and rise in corporate sales.
Rise in investments in fixed assets
The PLI scheme and capital expenditure schemes by government -Fresh investments are expected in renewables, electric vehicles, and battery tech.
Bank credit has been growing in double digits for eight months now, reflecting in part an uptick in investment appetite.
Term-lending to non-corporates is seeing an uptick — a positive sign that seems to imply that smaller firms may be seeking funds beyond their immediate working capital needs.
The Centre had recorded robust collections in both direct taxes and GST, reflecting sustained recovery of the corporate sector
States too have shown some decline in their consolidated deficits and net market borrowings.
Agriculture has been a sustained driver for overall GDP growth.

Centre for Business and Economic Research (CBER)

CBER was formerly called the Bureau of Business Research. It is an economic policy and forecasting research centre. The centre is headquartered in the UK.
CBER research encompasses health care, regional economies, public finance, energy sector studies and transportation.
The Cebr takes its base data from the IMF’s World Economic Outlook and uses an internal model to forecast growth, inflation and exchange rates.

WELT:

Since its first publication in 2009, Cebr’s World Economic League Table (known as the WELT) has established itself as the go to measure of the comparative economic success of different countries.
The WELT is calculated by estimating the current year GDP in current price dollars for each of over 190 world economies, and then forecasting real GDP, inflation and exchange rates for each country over the next 15 years.

3. Weighted average call rate

Subject :Economy

Context:

Private banks continued to outpace public sector banks in credit growth, according to the latest RBI data.

Details:

The share of private banks in total credit increased to 38.4 per cent in September 2022 from 37.5 a year ago and 29.6 percent five years ago.
Personal loans increased by 21.9 per cent in September 2022 accounting for one third of the total incremental credit.
Credit growth in the industrial sector continued for the fourth successive quarter.
The share of individuals in the total credit reached an all-time high of 44.4 percent in September 2022.
Female borrowers accounted for 22.6 percent of borrowings by individuals.
Deposits rose slowly at 9.9% compared to credit growth of 17.5% in the last one year.
The short-term Weighted Average Call Rate (WACR) has increased to 6.18% as of December 16, 2022, due to liquidity issues in the banking Systems.

Cause of credit offtake?

Low base effect due to Covid
Rise in NBFCs
Rise in the retail credit
The higher working capital demand driven by inflation and improvement in capacity utilisation ratio
Rise in demand for fresh capex

Concept:

The short-term Weighted Average Call Rate (WACR):

Call money rate is the rate at which short term funds are borrowed and lent in the money market.
- The duration of the call money loan is 1 day.
- Banks resort to these types of loans to fill the asset liability mismatch, comply with the statutory CRR and SLR requirements and to meet the sudden demand of funds.
- RBI, banks, primary dealers etc are the participants of the call money market.
- Demand and supply of liquidity affect the call money rate. A tight liquidity condition leads to a rise in call money rate and vice versa
The weighted average call rate (WACR) – which represents the unsecured segment of the overnight money market and is best reflective of systemic liquidity mismatches at the margin – is explicitly chosen as the operating target of monetary policy in India.
- The operating procedure of monetary policy is guided by the objective of aligning the operating target of monetary policy – the WACR (weighted average call rate) –to the repo rate through active liquidity management, consistent with the stance of monetary policy.
- Once the policy repo rate is announced, liquidity operations are conducted to keep the WACR closely aligned to the repo rate.
  - Liquidity management instruments include fixed and variable rate repo/reverse repo auctions, outright open market operations (OMOs), forex swaps etc.
  - A 14-day term repo/reverse repo operation at a variable rate conducted to coincide with the cash reserve ratio (CRR) maintenance cycle is the main liquidity management tool for managing frictional liquidity requirements.
  - The main liquidity operation is supported by overnight and/or longer tenor operations to tide over any unanticipated liquidity changes.
  - Standalone Primary Dealers (SPDs) are allowed to participate directly in all overnight liquidity management operations.
- If the weighted average call rate drifts towards the reverse repo rate-the lower bound of the monetary policy corridor–it will bring down the cost of funds of banks just as a rate cut would have.
The liquidity management corridor of RBI:
- Marginal standing facility (MSF) rate as its upper bound (ceiling)
- Standing deposit facility rate as the lower bound (floor)
- Policy repo rate and reverse repo rate in the middle of the corridor.

4. G-sec

Subject :Economy

Context:

Private banks have bought bonds worth a net of 216.20 billion rupees ($2.61 billion) this month, the highest since March 2020.

Cause:

Rise in deposit growth-As bank balance sheets expand, more it will keep on the investment book.
Higher bond yield-with expectations of (interest) rate cuts next year, and gain on the holding period.
Increased demand to meet statutory liquidity ratio (SLR) requirements.
- SLR is the minimum percentage of deposits that commercial banks are required to invest in liquid assets, such as government bonds and state debt. The ratio is currently 18%.
When there is an increase in economic activity, the speed of money going around increases and the need to maintain frictional liquidity (short-term funds) at banks also increases.

Concept:

Government Security (G-Sec):

It is a tradeable instrument issued by the Central Government or the State Governments.
It acknowledges the Government’s debt obligation.
Such securities are short term -usually called treasury bills, with original maturities of less than one year or long term-usually called Government bonds or dated securities with original maturity of one year or more).
In India, the Central Government issues both, treasury bills and bonds or dated securities while the State Governments issue only bonds or dated securities, which are called the State Development Loans (SDLs).
G-Secs carry practically no risk of default and, hence, are called risk-free gilt-edged instruments.
The Public Debt Office (PDO) of the Reserve Bank of India acts as the registry / depository of G-Secs and deals with the issue, interest payment and repayment of principal at maturity.
Besides banks, insurance companies and other large investors, smaller investors like Co-operative banks, Regional Rural Banks, Provident Funds are also required to statutory hold G-Secs.

Types:

Treasury Bills (T-bills)
- Treasury bills or T-bills, which are money market instruments, are short term debt instruments issued by the Government of India and are presently issued in three tenors, namely– 91 day, 182 day and 364 day.
- Treasury bills are zero coupon securities and pay no interest. Instead, they are issued at a discount and redeemed at the face value at maturity.
  - For example, a 91 day Treasury bill of ₹100/- (face value) may be issued at say ₹ 98.20, that is, at a discount of say, ₹1.80 and would be redeemed at the face value of ₹100.
Cash Management Bills (CMBs)
- In 2010, Government of India, in consultation with RBI introduced a new short-term instrument, known as Cash Management Bills (CMBs), to meet the temporary mismatches in the cash flow of the Government of India.
- The CMBs have the generic character of T-bills but are issued for maturities less than 91 days.
Dated G-Secs
- Dated G-Secs are securities which carry a fixed or floating coupon (interest rate) which is paid on the face value, on a half-yearly basis.
- Generally, the tenor of dated securities ranges from 5 years to 40 years.
- Most of the dated securities are fixed coupon securities.
- Types:
  - Fixed Rate Bonds – These are bonds on which the coupon rate is fixed for the entire life (i.e. till maturity) of the bond. Most Government bonds in India are issued as fixed rate bonds.
  - Floating Rate Bonds (FRB) – FRBs are securities which do not have a fixed coupon rate. Instead it has a variable coupon rate which is re-set at pre-announced intervals (say, every six months or one year). FRBs were first issued in September 1995 in India.
  - The Floating Rate Bond can also carry the coupon, which will have a base rate plus a fixed spread, to be decided by way of auction mechanism. The spread will be fixed throughout the tenure of the bond.
  - Zero Coupon Bonds – Zero coupon bonds are bonds with no coupon payments. However, like T- Bills, they are issued at a discount and redeemed at face value. The Government of India had issued such securities in 1996. It has not issued zero coupon bonds after that.
  - Capital Indexed Bonds – These are bonds, the principal of which is linked to an accepted index of inflation with a view to protecting the Principal amount of the investors from inflation.
  - Inflation Indexed Bonds (IIBs) – IIBs are bonds wherein both coupon flows and Principal amounts are protected against inflation. The inflation index used in IIBs may be Wholesale Price Index (WPI) or Consumer Price Index (CPI). IIBs were first issued in 1981 in the UK.
  - Bonds with Call/ Put Options – Bonds can also be issued with features of optionality wherein the issuer can have the option to buy-back (call option) or the investor can have the option to sell the bond (put option) to the issuer during the currency of the bond. It may be noted that such bonds may have put only or call only or both options.
  - Special Securities – Under the market borrowing program, the Government of India also issues, from time to time, special securities to entities like Oil Marketing Companies, Fertilizer Companies, the Food Corporation of India, etc. (popularly called oil bonds, fertiliser bonds and food bonds respectively) as compensation to these companies in lieu of cash subsidies These securities are usually long dated securities and carry a marginally higher coupon over the yield of the dated securities of comparable maturity. These securities are, however, not eligible as SLR securities but are eligible as collateral for market repo transactions. The beneficiary entities may divest these securities in the secondary market to banks, insurance companies / Primary Dealers, etc., for raising funds.
  - Bank Recapitalisation Bonds -These securities are named as Special GoI security and are non-transferable and are not eligible investment in pursuance of any statutory provisions or directions applicable to investment banks. These securities can be held under HTM portfolio without any limit.
  - STRIPS – Separate Trading of Registered Interest and Principal of Securities. – STRIPS are the securities created by way of separating the cash flows associated with a regular G-Sec i.e. each semi-annual coupon payment and the final principal payment to be received from the issuer, into separate securities. They are essentially Zero Coupon Bonds (ZCBs). However, they are created out of existing securities only and unlike other securities, are not issued through auctions.
  - Sovereign Gold Bond (SGB): SGBs are unique instruments, prices of which are linked to commodity price viz Gold.
  - Savings (Taxable) Bonds-These Bonds will be exempt from wealth-tax under the Wealth Tax Act, 1957. These Bonds will be issued at par for a minimum amount of ₹1,000 (face value) and in multiples thereof.
State Development Loans (SDLs)
- State Governments also raise loans from the market which are called SDLs.
- SDLs are dated securities issued through normal auction similar to the auctions conducted for dated securities issued by the Central Government.
- Like dated securities issued by the Central Government, SDLs issued by the State Governments also qualify for SLR. They are also eligible as collaterals for borrowing through market repo as well as borrowing by eligible entities from the RBI under the Liquidity Adjustment Facility (LAF) and special repo conducted under market repo by CCIL.
- State Governments have also issued special securities under “Ujjwal Discom Assurance Yojna (UDAY) Scheme for Operational and Financial Turnaround of Power Distribution Companies (DISCOMs).

5. Animation, Visual Effects, Gaming and Comics (AVGC)- XR Sector

Subject :Science and Technology

Context:

The government appointed AVGC Task Force, chaired by Apurva Chandra, submitted its report ‘Realising AVGC-XR Sector Potential in India’

Details:

The main recommendations of the Task Force categorized broadly under 4 categories are as under

Domestic Industry Development for Global Access
- A National AVGC-XR Mission for integrated promotion & growth of the AVGC sector.
- Launch of a ‘Create in India’ campaign with exclusive focus on content creation- In India, For India & For World.
- An International AVGC Platform, along with a Gaming Expo- with focus on FDI, Co-production treaties and Innovation.
- Establish a National Centre of Excellence (COE) for the AVGC sector.
- Regional COEs will be instituted in collaboration with the State Governments to provide access to local industries and to promote local talent and content.
Developing Talent ecosystem to realize Demographic Dividends
- Leverage NEP to develop creative thinking with dedicated AVGC course content at school levels, to build foundational skills and to create awareness about AVGC as a career choice.
- Launch AVGC focused UG/ PG courses with standard curriculum and globally recognized degrees.
- Standardize admission tests for AVGC related courses .
- Augment skilling initiatives for AVGC sector.
- Enhance Industry participation to ensure employment opportunities and absorption for students from non-metro cities and NE states.
- Establish AVGC Accelerators and Innovation hubs in academic institutions, on lines of Atal Tinkering Labs.
Enhancing Technology & Financial Viability for Indian AVGC Industry
- Promoting subscription-based pricing models for MSME, Start-Ups and institutions.
- Made in India for AVGC technologies through incentive schemes for R&D and IP creation.
- Evaluate PLI scheme to incentivize AVGC hardware manufacturers.
- Enhanced Ease of Doing Business in AVGC sector i.e tax benefits, import duties, curbing piracy, etc.
- Leverage Start-Up India to provide technical, financial and market access assistance to AVGC entrepreneurs.
Raising India’s soft power through an Inclusive growth
- Establish a dedicated Production Fund for domestic content creation from across India to promote Indian culture & heritage globally.
- Evaluate Reservation for high-quality indigenous content by broadcasters.
- Target skilling and industry outreach for youth in Tier 2 & 3 towns and villages in India.
- Establish Special incentives for women entrepreneurs in the AVGC sector.
- Promote local Children’s channels for raising awareness on rich culture and history of India among children and youth
- Establish framework to ensure Child Rights Protection in the digital world

Animation, Visual Effects, Gaming and Comics (AVGC)- XR Sector:

XR refers to Extended Reality-an umbrella term used to describe immersive technologies that can merge the physical and virtual worlds.
Currently, India contributes between $2.5 and $3 billion to the estimated $260 to $275 billion global AVGC industry.
The AVGC sector which has been growing at 16% year- on-year.
The AVGC sector in India employs 1.85 lakh professionals, and another 30,000 are employed indirectly.
The AVGC sector currently accounts for nearly 1% of the global market.
India’s share can rise to 6% and the sector has the potential to create 2 million jobs in the next 10 years
AVGC was a sunrise sector after information technology.

6. One Nation, One Gas Grid

Subject :Science and Technology

Context:

The national gas grid project has slowed down, with progress in parts of southwest and southeast India yet to pick up.

Concept:

“One Nation, One Gas Grid”

Currently the Indian Power system for planning and operational purposes is divided into five regional grids.The integration of regional grids, and thereby establishment of National Grid, was conceptualized in the early nineties.
One Nation, One Gas Grid refers to the joining of several regional grids, creating a national grid, and supplying multiple stakeholders, including the central government, state governments, the public sector, and the commercial sector, with natural gas-produced energy.
Thus, with one nation and one gas grid, the energy produced from natural gas will be supplied to the whole country via a single source.
The country is set to expand the natural gas grid to 34,500 Km under One Nation One Gas Grid. The regasification capacity of existing 42 MMTPA will be expanded to 61 MMTPA by year 2022.
The Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory Board (PNGRB) is the organisation responsible for approving the construction of pipelines.
The objectives of the National Gas Grid – using a single source for removing regional imbalance with regard to access for natural gas and provide clean and green fuel, connect gas sources to major demand centres and development of City Gas Distribution Networks in various cities for the supply of CNG and PNG, pave way for establishment of vibrant Electricity market facilitating trading of power across regions

About Natural gas produced energy:

Liquefied natural gas (LNG) needs to be converted back to its gaseous state to use as a fuel for power generation, heating and cooking.
This process takes place at large import terminals where LNG carriers discharge their LNG cargo before it is transported further to the end-user through a pipeline gas network.
There are five LNG terminals in India—Dahej, Hazira, Dabhol, Kochi and Ennore.
Under the Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory Board (PNGRB) Act 2006, PNGRB also grants the authorization to the entities for developing a City Gas Distribution (CGD) network (including PNG network) in a specified Geographical Area (GA) of the country.
- CGD sector has four distinct segments “ Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) predominantly used as auto-fuel, and Piped Natural Gas (PNG) used in in domestic, commercial and Industrial segments”.

7. Long COVID, mental disorders among diseases to watch in 2023: IHME

Context:

The coronavirus infection has also given birth to sequelae conditions (Long COVID) and aggravated some existing ailments (mental health disorders). They are widespread and not understood very well.

Long Covid:

While SARS-CoV-2 is typically an acute illness lasting about three weeks, some people with COVID have symptoms that last months or longer.
The World Health Organization defines long COVID as symptoms that last 12 weeks or longer.
Some patients have felt the impact of coronavirus infection till weeks after they tested negative. COVID-19 impacted the various organs of the human body in different ways and these sequelae conditions are so widespread that they were referred to as the ‘silent pandemic’.
Symptoms: Headache, memory loss, confusion, chest ailment and lingering cough.
Impact: often disrupts a person’s ability to engage with school, work or relationships for months at a time.
People with long COVID need diagnostic and proper rehabilitation support from primary care physicians.

Mental health disorder:

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), mental health is a state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community.’
Like Physical health, Mental health is also important at every stage of life, from childhood and adolescence through adulthood.
An estimated 150 million people across India are in need of mental health care interventions, according to India’s latest National Mental Health Survey 2015-16.
The southern part of India including Tamilnadu has the highest burden of mental stress cases in India.

Climate change impact:

The worsening climate has had a cascading effect on the health and well-being of the global population; heat and floods have increased disease prevalence and mental stress, among other impacts.
Minimising the impact via adaptation and enhanced resilience, technological solutions like using drought-resistant crops etc.

Cardiovascular disease:

Highest burden among non-communicable diseases.
Proper monitoring is needed.
Disease burden can be reduced by controlling lifestyle factors such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, obesity, dietary risks, smoking and air pollution.

Lower respiratory infection:

Lower respiratory infections (LRI), especially respiratory syncytial virus and influenza, are rising health issues.

8. Botanical gardens failed to conserve threatened plants despite Rs 48 crore budget: CAG report

Subject :Environment

Context:

A scheme by the Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) with a budget of over Rs 48 crore was ineffective in conserving threatened and endemic plants in the country said a report by the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India for the financial year 2020-2021. The report was released on December 23, 2022.

Details:

MoEF&CC could not achieve the ex-situ conservation and multiplication of threatened and endemic plants through the Assistance to Botanic Garden (ABG) scheme.
It was implemented through the Botanical Survey of India (BSI) and had a budget of Rs 48.07 crore

Ex-situ Conservation:

This method involves removing threatened animals and plants from their native environment and relocating them to a designated location where they can be protected and given specialised care.
This is accomplished by zoological parks, botanical gardens, wildlife safari parks, and seed banks.
Many species of animals are nevertheless kept alive in zoological parks despite going extinct in the wild.
Ex-situ conservation has recently gone beyond the preservation of vulnerable species.
Now, utilizing cryopreservation technology, gametes of endangered species can be kept in viable and fertile form for extended periods of time.
In vitro fertilization of eggs and tissue culture techniques for plant propagation are also possible.
In seed banks, seeds of several genetic strains of commercially significant plants can be preserved for a long time.
The key focus of the national gene bank at the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), Delhi, is the long-term preservation of rare accessions as base collections for future generations, particularly in the form of seeds.

Ex-situ Conservation facilities:

Botanical Gardens:

This is a technique for ex-situ conservation of endangered and threatened species in their local habitats.
Governments at various levels, educational institutions, and international assistance are all involved in maintaining this.
More than 80,000 species can be found in more than 1500 botanic gardens and arboreta around the globe.
There are currently tissue culture labs, seed banks, and other ex-situ technologies at many of these botanical gardens.

Zoological Parks (Zoos):

Around the world, there are more than 800 professionally run zoos that house around 3000 different species of mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians.
These zoos frequently feature advanced captive breeding programmes.
Breeders and genetic engineers have a ready source of genetic material thanks to the protection of crop plants, animals, or microbes’ wild ancestors.
Many tropical islands have a large number of indigenous animal species, and they also have a highly spectacular record of agro-biodiversity.

Wildlife Safari Parks:

A zoo-like establishment frequently referred to as a “wildlife park,” a safari park is an example of ex-situ conservation.
It is a drive-in tourist attraction where visitors can ride in vehicles provided by the establishment or drive their own cars while watching animals roam freely.
A safari park is bigger than a zoo and smaller than a game reserve. For instance, the 750-acre African Lion Safari in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada (3.0 km2).

Seed Banks:

Seeds are kept in seed banks in order to protect genetic variety for the future.
They often contain jars of seeds from various plant species and are vaults that are bomb, flood, and radiation-proof.
Seeds must be kept in storage for a variety of reasons. In order to boost crop output, disease resistance, drought tolerance, nutritional quality, flavor, and other traits, plant breeders need certain genes to be preserved.
Another is to prevent the genetic diversity of rare or threatened plant species from being lost in an effort to ex situ conserve biodiversity.
The seeds are normally stored in low humidity and cold (about -20°C) conditions.

Techniques for Plants

Cryopreservation:

Seeds, pollen, tissue, and embryos are all stored in liquid nitrogen during plant cryopreservation.
Compared to all other methods of ex situ conservation, this method allows for practically unlimited storage of the material without deterioration over a far longer time frame.
Through cryopreservation of animal genetic resources, cryopreservation is also employed to conserve livestock genetics.
Many species cannot be cryopreserved due to technical limits, but plants are the subject of several studies in the discipline of cryobiology, which is an area of ongoing research.

Seed Banking:

The preservation of seeds in a setting with controlled humidity and temperature is called seed banking.
For taxa with conventional seeds that can withstand desiccation, this method is employed.
Facilities for seed banks range from climate-controlled walk-in freezers or vaults to sealed boxes.
Normally, taxa with resistant seeds that cannot tolerate desiccation aren’t kept in seed banks for a very long time.

Field Gene Banking:

Field Gene Banking refers to a sizable open-air planting used to preserve the genetic variety of wild, domesticated, or forest species.
In most cases, field gene banks conserve species that are either impossible or difficult to conserve in seed banks.
Field gene banks can be used to cultivate and pick offspring of species preserved via various ex situ methods.

Cultivation Collections:

Cultivation Collections refer to plants that are cared for horticulturally in a built landscape, usually a botanic garden or arboretum.
Although plants are kept in their natural habitat, this method is comparable to field gene banks in that collections are often not as large or genetically varied.
These collections are vulnerable to disease spread, genetic drift, artificial selection, and hybridization.
Frequently, cultivated collections contain species that cannot be preserved using other ex situ methods.

Inter situ:

Horticulture is used to take care of the plants, but the surroundings are kept as close to nature as possible.
This happens in both semi-natural and restored habitats.
This method is mainly applied to uncommon taxa or those that are found in severely degraded habitats.

Tissue Culture:

In tissue culture, somatic tissue can be kept in vitro for a short while.
This is carried out in a setting with controlled lighting and temperature to manage cell development.
Tissue culture is mostly utilized for clonal growth of vegetative tissue or immature seeds as an ex situ conservation strategy.
This makes it possible for clonal plants to grow from a tiny amount of parent tissue.

Techniques for Animals:

Similar methods are used to protect endangered animal species and breeds.
Gene Banks:
- In gene banks, which are composed of cryogenic facilities used to store living sperm, eggs, or embryos, animal species can be conserved.
Cryopreservation:
- For instance, the Zoological Society of San Diego has created a “frozen zoo” to retain such samples from more than 355 species, including mammals, reptiles, and birds, using cryopreservation techniques.
Interspecific Pregnancy:
- Interspecific pregnancy is one such method that could help endangered species reproduce.
- It involves implanting embryos of an endangered species into a female of a related species and allowing to bring the embryo to term. For the Spanish ibex, it has been done.

Ex-situ Conservation:

Advantages

Organisms are completely protected from predators and poachers.
Individuals’ health can be tracked and medical assistance can be provided as required.
Populations can be divided more effectively in the case of a disaster.
The genetic diversity of the population can be measured.
Selective breeding programmes can be implemented.
Modern reproductive technology can increase the chances of reproductive success.
Animals and plants can be bred to increase their numbers if they are in danger of extinction.
Research on an endangered species’ reproductive physiology, way of life, and ecology is made simpler.
Funds for additional conservation efforts might be raised by using conservation sites as attractions.
Educational activities can take place in conservation areas.

Disadvantages:

Genetic diversity in captive populations is minimal.
As the creatures are residing outside of their normal habitat, nutritional problems could occur.
Animals can be exposed to a wide variety of various diseases.
Animals might not behave normally.
Attempting to reproduce at times may become difficult.
Appropriate environmental conditions for survival could be challenging to attain.
Acceptance by the species’ current wild members may present challenges.

9. Why India refused to sign Methane Pledge?

Subject :Environment

Context:

A few days back, the government gave a detailed explanation to the Parliament why it refused to sign the methane pledge. It said that fundamentally methane emissions are ‘survival’ emissions and not ‘luxury’ emissions, as in the case of the West.
This pledge has the potential to affect India’s trade and economic prospects.
The government also pointed out that agriculture was not included in the emission intensity target as per India’s pre-2020 voluntary commitments.
This pledge shifts the CO2 reduction burden to methane reduction, which has a lifetime of just 12 years.

About Global Methane Pledge

The Global Methane Pledge was launched at COP (Conference of Parties) 26 in November 2021 to catalyse action to reduce methane emissions.
It was led by the United States and the European Union.
It has 111 country participants who together are responsible for 45% of global human-caused methane emissions.
India, which is not a part of the Global Methane Pledge, is among the top five methane emitters globally.
Most emissions can be traced back to agriculture.
By joining the Pledge, countries commit to work together in order to collectively reduce methane emissions by at least 30% below 2020 levels by 2030.

Concern:

Methane has contributed to about one-third of the current anthropogenic greenhouse gas-driven warming.
Methane enters the atmosphere due to leaks in oil and gas industries, rearing livestock and the decomposition of waste in landfills.
Currently, only 2 % of global climate finance goes to methane.
If the Global Methane Pledge is not adhered to, Methane emissions will likely increase by 13 % by 2030.

What is Methane?

Methane is a gas that is found in small quantities in Earth’s atmosphere.
Methane is the simplest hydrocarbon, consisting of one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms (CH4). Methane is powerful greenhouse gas.
It is flammable, and is used as a fuel worldwide.
Methane is produced by the breakdown or decay of organic material and can be introduced into the atmosphere by either natural processes – such as the decay of plant material in wetlands, the seepage of gas from underground deposits or the digestion of food by cattle – or human activities – such as oil and gas production, rice farming or waste management.
Impact:
Methane is 84 times more potent than carbon and doesn’t last as long in the atmosphere before it breaks down.
This makes it a critical target for reducing global warming more quickly while simultaneously working to reduce other greenhouse gases.
It is responsible for creating ground-level ozone, a dangerous air pollutant.

About NICRA:

National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) is a network project of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) launched in February 2011.
Aim: The project aims to enhance the resilience of Indian agriculture to climate change and climate vulnerability through strategic research and technology demonstration.
The research on adaptation and mitigation covers crops, livestock, fisheries and natural resource management.
Objectives of NICRA:
To enhance the resilience of Indian agriculture covering crops, livestock and fisheries to climatic variability and climate change through the development and application of improved production and risk management technologies.
To demonstrate site specific technology packages on farmers’ fields for adapting to current climate risks
To enhance the capacity building of scientists and other stakeholders in climate resilient agricultural research and its application.
Components: The Project is composed of Four Components:
Strategic research on adaptation and mitigation
Technology demonstration on farmers fields to cope with current climate variability
Sponsored and competitive research grants to fill critical research gaps
Capacity building of different stakeholders.

10. Drugmaler Hetero is first generic to get WHO pre-qualification approval

Subject :Science and Technology

Context:

Drugmaker Hetero said it has received World Health Organization (WHO) prequalification approval for its generic version of Pfizer’s Covid-19 oral antiviral treatment candidate nirmatrelvir.
Hetero’s combi-pack Nirmacom will contain nirmatrelvir 150 mg (2 tablets) and ritonavir 100mg (1 tablet).
WHO made a strong recommendation for nirmatrelvir and ritonavir for mild and moderate Covid-19 patients at the highest risk of hospital admission, such as unvaccinated, aged or immunosuppressed patients.
Hetero has already received Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) approval from the Drugs Controller General of India (DCGI) to manufacture and market Nirmacom. (eom).

WHO Pre-qualification approval

A WHO pre-qualification, or Emergency Use Listing (EUL), is necessary for a vaccine company to supply vaccines to global facilities such as COVAX or international procurement.
The WHO Emergency Use Listing Procedure (EUL) is a risk-based procedure for assessing and listing unlicensed vaccines, therapeutics and in vitro diagnostics with the ultimate aim of expediting the availability of these products to people affected by a public health emergency.

To be eligible, the following criteria must be met:

The disease for which the product is intended is serious or immediately life threatening, has the potential of causing an outbreak, epidemic or pandemic and it is reasonable to consider the product for an EUL assessment, e.g., there are no licensed products for the indication or for a critical subpopulation (e.g., children).
Existing products have not been successful in eradicating the disease or preventing outbreaks (in the case of vaccines and medicines).
The product is manufactured in compliance with current Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) in the case of medicines and vaccines and under a functional Quality Management System (QMS) in the case of IVDs.
The applicant undertakes to complete the development of the product (validation and verification of the product in the case of IVDs) and apply for WHO prequalification once the product is licensed.

Emergency Use Authorisation (EUA) in India

Vaccines and medicines, and even diagnostic tests and medical devices, require the approval of a regulatory authority before they can be administered.
In India, the regulatory authority is the Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation(CDSCO).
The approval is granted after an assessment of their safety and effectiveness, based on data from trials. In fact, approval from the regulator is required at every stage of these trials.
This is a long process, designed to ensure that medicine or vaccine is absolutely safe and effective.
The fastest approval for any vaccine until now — the mumps vaccine in the 1960s — took about four-and-a-half years after it was developed.

Accelerated Approval Process in India

Under this process, a new drug is approved based on data generated in clinical trials. The Rules provide a relaxation for skipping Phase III clinical trials, which crucially test for a vaccine or drug’s efficacy in preventing disease in the local population.
Phase III trial is allowed to be skipped if ‘remarkable efficacy’ is observed with a defined dose in the Phase II clinical trial of the new drug.
The regulator can then also grant market approval for the new drug or vaccine based on Phase II data to meet what the Rules call ‘unmet medical needs of serious and life threatening diseases in the country’.
The Rules also state that in such cases, additional studies ‘may’ be required after approval to generate data on a larger population to verify its benefits.
Unmet medical needs essentially means a situation where treatment or diagnosis of disease is not addressed adequately with the available therapy.
Further, the Rules provide for relaxations for unapproved or imported drugs or vaccines. The regulator relies on clinical trial data generated abroad to approve the vaccines in such scenarios and additional non-clinical or clinical data may be required to back the claims.

Exceptions for emergency

In emergency situations, like the current one, regulatory authorities around the world have developed mechanisms to grant interim approvals.
However, there should sufficient evidence to suggest a medical product is safe and effective.
Final approval is granted only after completion of the trials and analysis of full data; until then, EUA allows the medicine or the vaccine to be used on the public.
India’s drug regulations do not have provisions for a EUA, and the process for receiving one is not clearly defined or consistent.