Daily Prelims Notes 31 October 2023

Daily Prelims Notes

31 October 2023

Table Of Contents

1. Has the Lewis Model of growth failed in India?
2. RBI raises the floor on non-breakable term deposits to ₹1 crore
3. MCA to now enforce beneficial interest reporting regime for LLPs also
4. SAT quashes SEBI’s ban on key roles for ZEE’s Goenka
5. Holes in IMF’s climate finance plan
6. India Stack and digital adoption
7. Keeping the intriguing Tamil Lambadi art of embroidery alive
8. COVID-19 vaccines did not increase the risk of sudden death among youth: study
9. IIT team finds carbon ‘flowers’ excelling at turning light to heat
10. Largest Indian Data Leak: 815 Million People’s COVID Test Data on Sale, Samples Verified
11. The Sun’s activity cycle is reaching its peak early: Knowing why could help us unlock the secrets of our star
12. Indian farmers taxed $169 bn via export bans or restrictions in 2022: OECD report
13. SC puts Maharashtra Speaker on deadline over defection pleas
14. The act of photocopying: its origins, working and wide-ranging impact
15. India seek formal talk at WTO for reform in dispute resolution body
16. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
17. Citizens right to know subject to reasonable restrictions
18. Proposed mosque in Ayodhya gets a new name and design
19. Demolition of the National Museum
20. Temples allegedly destroyed by Portuguese in Goa

1. Has the Lewis Model of growth failed in India?

Subject : Economy

Section: National Income

Concept: Lewis Model of economic growth, developed by economist William Arthur Lewis, proposed that for underdeveloped countries with a surplus of low-wage labour in agriculture, industrialization could lead to economic growth. But this has not happened for a country like India, which still has low employment in the skilled manufacturing sector.

Key Points:

• Economist William Arthur Lewis wrote on the enormous industrialisation possibilities for underdeveloped countries having an unlimited supply of labour available at subsistence wages.
• His theory won him the 1979 Economics Nobel Prize and economic growth was seen as a virtual inevitability for countries with surplus labour populations, such as India.
• Lewis model’s example was the Chinese growth experience. That country, from the late 1970s to the 2000s, leveraged its demographic dividend and large pool of surplus rural labour to become “the world’s factory”

What is the implication of surplus or “unlimited supply” of labour?

• The marginal productivity of such labour, engaged in sectors such agriculture, was “negligible, zero, or even negative”:
• Their withdrawal from farms would, far from reducing agricultural output, make the existing holdings more viable and amenable to productivity-enhancing mechanisation.

The Indian experience:

• In 1979 Lewis specifically mentioned India should experience growth as per his model. And noted that the only bottlenecks to the seamless transfer of labour from farms to factories were “capital and natural resources”, which these countries lacked relative to their populations.

Indian growth has not taken the path Lewis envisaged:

• Agriculture employed about two-thirds of India’s workforce till the early nineties.
• This share fell from 64.6% to 48.9% between 1993-94 and 2011-12.
• But not much of it was courtesy of manufacturing, whose share in employment rose marginally, from 10.4% to 12.6%, during this period.
• Subsequent period has seen the farm sector’s share in the country’s employed labour force first drop somewhat slowly, to a low of 42.5% in 2018-19, and then increase to 45.6% and 46.5% in the following two Covid-impacted years.
• The current 45.8% share, as per the National Sample Survey Office’s Periodic Labour Force Survey report for 2022-23 (July-June), is still higher than the pre-pandemic levels.
• In fact India has seen a dip in manufacturing’s share, from the 2011-12 high of 12.6% to 11.4% in 2022-23.

Manufacturing position within Industry:

• The declining trend of manufacturing employment (11.4%) preceded the pandemic so much so that this sector now employs less than even the workforce in construction (13%) and trade, hotels & restaurants (12.1%).
• Employment in the latter two sectors is pretty much similar to agriculture – low marginal productivity (output per worker), informal and paying just-about subsistence wages.

Can Lewis Model still work in India?

• The relevance or replicability of that model of structural transformation is open to question today.
• India does still have near-unlimited supply of surplus labour working in subsistence sectors and suffering, what is called, “disguised unemployment”.
• It is also experiencing a bulge in the working-age population, like China did till the last decade. But the opportunities for gainful employment through the conventional route aren’t as much as before.
• Manufacturing is turning increasingly capital-intensive, with the deployment of both labour-saving and labour-displacing technologies such as robotics, artificial intelligence and machine learning.
• Thus there is a need to rethink the whole model of labour transition from agriculture to industry

An alternative to the Lewis Model?

• NITI Aayog is working on a “new” economic development model for India, exploring the scope for remunerative job creation “in and around agriculture” itself.
• Such jobs needn’t be on the farm, but outside it, in the aggregation, grading, packaging, transporting, processing, warehousing and retailing of produce or the supply of inputs and services to farmers.

2. RBI raises the floor on non-breakable term deposits to ₹1 crore

Subject : Economy

Section: Monetary policy

In News: RBI raises the minimum size for non-breakable term deposits from Rs. 15 Lakh to Rs. 1 Crore, in a move to benefit retail depositors.

Key Points:

• RBI reviews its Master Direction on Interest Rate on Deposits with respect to non-callable TDs, whereby it sharply increased the minimum amount for banks to offer non-callable TDs from ₹15 lakh to ₹1 crore.

Fixed Deposit rule change: 

• RBI has increased the minimum amount for offering non-callable term deposits to Rs 1 crore.
• Earlier the limit was Rs 15 lakh. So, customers will get an option to prematurely withdraw money from their fixed deposits (FDs) of up to Rs 1 crore.
• This hike in non-callable FD limit will be applicable to all commercial banks and co-operative banks with immediate effect.
• These instructions shall also be applicable for Non-Resident (External) Rupee (NRE) Deposit / Ordinary Non-Resident (NRO) Deposits

What are Non-callable fixed deposits?

• Non-callable fixed deposits refer to a category of term deposits that offer no premature withdrawal option before the completion of tenure.
•  Once you invest in these deposits, your money will be locked for the entire tenure. You can only access the money once your FD matures.
• Premature withdrawal involves a penalty on the interest rate applicable on the deposit.

Why the increase in limit?

• May have assessed that banks probably have reached a stage where premature withdrawals below ₹1 crore threshold will not impact them much.
• RBI may have increased the limit for non-callable term-deposits to ensure that retail depositors don’t get lured by additional interest rates offered on these deposits and end up getting penalised when they need to break them in case of emergency.

How are banks likely to be affected?

• It is not clear what will be the magnitude of impact on Bank’s cost of funds but this move is likely to slightly increase Bank’s funding costs, as customers earn greater interest even in case of premature withdrawal.
• The earlier minimum deposit threshold (of ₹15 lakh) to offer non-callable term deposits to individuals gave them an LCR (liquidity coverage ratio) advantage. But with the increase in this threshold from ₹15 lakh to ₹1 crore, that scope has been reduced.

3. MCA to now enforce beneficial interest reporting regime for LLPs also

Subject : Economy

Section: Monetary policy

In News: Government extends the law of beneficial interest to LLPs as well. Earlier, it applied only on equity shares of companies.

Key Points:

• Centre has enhanced its supervision over Limited Liability Partnerships (LLPs), requiring them to become more transparent and declare the “beneficial interest” holders, if any, on the contributions of their partners
• The latest MCA move comes after the ‘beneficial interest’ regime in shares, requiring corporates to be more transparent and appoint a ‘designated person’ who can be a single point contact for the government authorities.
• Corporate Affairs Ministry (MCA) has amended the LLP Rules to make it mandatory for every person holding or acquiring a ‘beneficial interest’ in the contribution of partner (to an LLP) to declare such interest to the LLP, who in turn has to file a return with the Registrar of Companies (RoCs) on this front.

Why the policy change?

• The purpose of this policy change is to ascertain the true or “beneficial” owner’s interest in and control over the contributions made by the partners to the LLP.
• Further in the last few years, there has been increased preference to set up LLPs due to several advantages including lower compliance for such structures.
• LLP formation has boomed because company disclosures have become more stringent and moreover they face lesser questioning from auditors.

Compliance by LLPs now:

• Every LLP must now designate a partner who will have to cooperate with the RoC or any other MCA authorities in furnishing information about beneficial interest of the contributions received by such structures
• They need to have a designated partner who will act as a single point contact for MCA authorities as regards compliance on ‘beneficial interest’.
• Also every LLP must now maintain a Register of Partners and detail the quantum and nature of contributions received from each Partner

4. SAT quashes SEBI’s ban on key roles for ZEE’s Goenka

Subject : Economy

Section: Monetary policy

Context:

The Securities Appellate Tribunal (SAT) on Monday set aside an order of the  Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) barring Zee Entertainment Enterprises Ltd.‘s CEO Punit Goenka from holding any key managerial position in the media house or any other company over allegations that he and his father, Zee founder Subhash Chandra, had siphoned off company funds.

About Securities appellate tribunal:

• It is a statutory body established under the provisions of the Securities and Exchange Board of India Act, 1992.
• It hears and disposes of appeals against orders passed by the Securities and Exchange Board of India, the Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority (PFRDA) and the Insurance Regulatory Development Authority of India (IRDAI).

Composition:

• It consists of a Presiding Officer & Two other members.
• The Presiding officer shall be appointed by the Central Government in consultation with the Chief Justice of India or his nominee.
• It has the same powers as vested in a civil court under the code of civil procedure while trying a suit.

Key facts about SEBI

• It is a statutory regulatory body established by the Government of India in 1992.
• It was given statutory powers through the SEBI Act, of 1992.
• Objective: To regulate the securities market in India and protect the interests of investors in securities.

5. Holes in IMF’s climate finance plan

Subject : Environment

Section:  climate change

In News: IMF’s latest estimate on climate investments notes need to almost double private share in total funding.

Key Points:

• IMF’s estimate that the share of private financing in climate investments would have to rise from 40 per cent currently to 76-88 per cent by 2030.
• IMF’s stance on climate funding ends up absolving the developed nations’ historical responsibility.
• IMF, in its Global Financial Stability report (GFSR) of October 2023 estimates the global financing needs for mitigation needed to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050, using data from the International Energy Agency (IEA) and the International Renewal Energy Agency (IRENA).
• There have been several recent instances that show the breakdown of multilateralism and the lack of international commitment from countries towards climate funding needs:
  • The 2023 pledging Conference for the second replenishment of the Green Climate Fund, the largest climate-dedicated multilateral funding source, generated only $9.3 billion of commitments from 24 countries compared to $10.3 billion in 2014 .
  • The fourth meeting of the Loss and Damage (L&D) Transitional Committee) failed to arrive at a consensus.
  • The promised (meagre) amount of $100 billion a year of climate finance from the developed to the less developed by 2020 is yet to be achieved, even in nominal terms.
  • UN’s Green Climate Fund makes the multilateral component of the $100 billion and contributes only 10 per cent, . And even that small sum cannot be mobilised in time.

What has led to this situation?

• While developed countries need to finance much of the effort at reining in carbon emissions and global warming, failures on this are justified on the grounds that there is only so much that rich country governments can do, given the fiscal constraints they face.
• So, the ‘global’ (rather than rich country) failure is attributed to an inability to persuade private capital to invest in projects that mitigate carbon emissions and help countries adapt to the impacts of ongoing climate change.
• This tries to absolves the developed countries of their historical responsibility, despite their disproportionate share of cumulative carbon emissions.

6. India Stack and digital adoption

Subject: Science and Tech

Section: Awareness in IT

Key Points:

• India Stack is a term used for a set of open Application Programming Interfaces (API) a software bridge that enables two applications to talk to each other and digital public goods that aim to unlock the economic basics of identity, data, and payments at a population scale.
• It includes Aadhaar authentication, eKYC, eSign, DigiLocker, United Payment Interface, Aadhaar Enabled Payment System, Immediate Payment Service, and Aadhaar Payment Bridge.
• The India Stack dubbed as Digital Public Infrastructure, has gone global. Since June 2023, India has signed MoUs with countries such as Armenia, SierraLeone, Suriname, and Antigua & Barbuda, among others.
• Instrumental to the development of India Stack is the Indian Software Products Industry Round Table (iSPIRT), the software products think tank led by tech advocates and volunteers.
• SPIRIT has also launched several open networks:
  • Open Credit Enablement Network
    • It basically reimagines the lending ecosystem in a manner wherein any service provider that interfaces with customers can now also play the role of credit provider.
    • This network comprises lenders, borrowers, credit bureaus, underwriters, tech companies, and a new class of entities called Loan Service Providers. It is now ready for scale use, after the pilot programme.
  • Open Health Services Network:
    • It is an interface that governs the relationship between various market players in the healthcare ecosystem such as teleconsult providers, pharmacies, or diagnostic centres on one side, and government or private apps and platforms on the other side.
  • WANI (Wireless Access Network Interface):
    • It is aimed at enabling internet access to deep rural areas.
• For the next year, iSPIRIT has two other developments to roll out which include Sakram for solutions around cybersecurity and Bharat Distributed Ledger for enforcing commercial contracts.

Tusker found shot dead in Jawalagiri forest range in Hosur

Jawalagiri forest range:

• It falls within the Cauvery North Wildlife Sanctuary, in Hosur, Tamil Nadu.

Cauvery north wildlife sanctuary:

• It is a protected area located in the Dharmapuri and Krishnagiri districts of Tamil Nadu, India.
• Sanctuary is named as it is located above the north of Cauvery river in Tamil Nadu state and south of the river connects to the Cauvery Wildlife Sanctuary of Karnataka state.
• The Government of Tamil Nadu declared Cauvery North WildLife Sanctuary under Section 26-A of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972.
• Sanctuary comes under the Melagiri Hill ranges which is a significant wildlife corridor in the confluence of Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats where it forms the vital link to the Male Mahadeshwara Betta hills, Biligirirangana Hills, Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary and Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.

Source: TH

7. Keeping the intriguing Tamil Lambadi art of embroidery alive

Subject : Geography

Section: Places in news

Context:

• Porgai Artisan Association Society (PAAS), with 60 plus women, has been making and selling embroidered clothes to ensure that there is awareness about the art form and that it is passed onto the next generation.

Lambadi art of embroidery:

• The traditional Tamil Lambadi embroidery designs are all geometrical patterns with squares, rectangles, and circles.
• They have also been influenced by the local forests, birds, fruits and flowers.
• These are not the same as those of the Banjaras in Andhra Pradesh or the Lambanis in Karnataka. Lambani is more filled in, though the stitches, 42 of them, are quite similar. It don’t use mirrors as much as the others do.
• Since 2006, with the facilitation of Tribal Health Initiative, PAAS has revived the craft.
• A majority of Porgai’s products are made from organic cotton grown in their own villages.

Lambadi tribal community:

• Several hundred years ago, the Lambadi tribals migrated from North Western India to down south for a living. They were a nomadic tribe but ended up settling down in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu. Sittilingi Valley (Tamil Nadu) is the second southernmost settlement of Lambadis in India.

Source: TH

8. COVID-19 vaccines did not increase the risk of sudden death among youth: study

Subject: Science and tech

Section: Health

Context:

• COVID-19 vaccination did not increase the risk of sudden death among young adults, but health issues and lifestyle factors appear to play a more prominent role in these events, according to a study conducted by the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR).

Details of the study:

• The study was conducted to investigate the factors contributing to sudden unexplained deaths among healthy young adults in India
• Findings are revealed in a study, titled “Factors associated with sudden deaths among adults aged 18 to 45 in India”. The study is a multi-centric matched case-control report.
• Factors that did increase the chances of sudden death included having a family history of sudden death, being in the hospital for COVID-19 in the past, and certain behaviors such as binge drinking and intense physical activity shortly before death.
• Key finding: COVID-19 vaccination did not increase the risk of sudden death among young adults in India, but it reduces the risk of sudden death.

Cases of sudden death in India post-covid-19 pandemic:

• Also called Sudden Cardiac Death (SCD).
• It is an unexpected, natural death within an hour, caused by an abrupt stoppage of the heart, preceded by fainting at the onset of acute cardiac malfunction. It can affect any individual with or without pre-existing heart disease but those with higher risk factors are more at risk. Many victims also die in their sleep.
• Sudden Death almost always has cardiovascular causes with more than 95 per cent of the fatalities due to sudden cardiac arrest.
• Less than five per cent of these are due to rupture of some relatively big vessel (artery or aorta) leading to massive bleeding into the stomach, chest or brain.
  • One of the important reasons for rupture of the aorta is excessive dilatation defined as an aortic aneurysm, which is a balloon-like bulge in the aorta, the large artery that carries blood from the heart through the chest and torso.

How is SCD different from a heart attack?

• A heart attack occurs due to sudden, total (100 percent) blockage of the two coronary arteries. If a heart attack occurs due to blockage in a major or big coronary artery, it can certainly lead to cardiac arrest.
• Only 15 percent of sudden cardiac arrests occur due to heart attacks while 85 per cent are due to an already damaged heart.

Source: TH

9. IIT team finds carbon ‘flowers’ excelling at turning light to heat

Subject :Science and Tech

Section: AWARENESS IN IT

Context:

• Researchers at IIT Bombay have synthesized particles that absorb three frequencies of sunlight and convert it to heat with an efficiency of 87%. These particles can be coated on surfaces to heat homes and sterilize surfaces in hospitals. The researchers have applied for a patent.

Details:

• Researchers heated a special form of silicon dust called DFNS (for dendritic fibrous nanosilica) in a furnace. Once heated, they introduced acetylene gas into the chamber. The white powder turned black – a sign that carbon had been deposited on the DFNS.
• Then they collected the black powder and treated it with a strong chemical that dissolved the DFNS away, leaving carbon particles behind.
• The structure of the silicon particles – 50-1,200 nanometers in size – resembled spikes arranged around a sphere. With the silicon filling taken away, what was left behind were little carbon beads whose surfaces were pocked with cone-shaped pits. In effect, the beads were spherical nanostructures composed of carbon cones.

Nanoflorets:

• When looking through a microscope, these particles appears like tiny marigold flowers, made only of carbon. They called the material carbon nanoflorets.
• These nanoflorets could absorb sunlight at many frequencies and convert it to heat with an unprecedented efficiency.
• The nanoflorets also didn’t easily dissipate the heat generated into the environment, making the material a good candidate to heat other materials, like water, using solar energy.
• It can be coated on paper, metal, and terracotta clay.

Two different techniques:

• In 2018, another identical structure was reported that was dubbed “carbon nanospheres with wrinkled cages”. It was developed using formaldehyde-phenol polymerisation chemistry.
• But nanoflorets differed in the techniques used to deposit carbon on the DFNS template (although this didn’t affect the characteristics of the product). It is developed using chemical vapour deposition (CVD).
  • In CVD, volatile compounds like acetylene are used to deposit a thin carbon film on the silicon-dust template.

‘Blacker than black’:

• The nanoflorets was extremely black in colour, which means it is a good absorber of light.
• The nanoflorets converted the light energy they absorbed into thermal energy – a process called solar-thermal conversion – with a remarkable efficiency of 87%, which is highest among known materials.

Unusual properties:

• Its high efficiency comes from three properties:
  • The nanoflorets absorb three frequencies in sunlight – infrared, visible light, and ultraviolet. Other common materials for solar-thermal conversion, like photovoltaic materials used in solar panels, absorb only visible and ultraviolet light.
  • As light falls on the material, the carbon cones ensure that very little is reflected back. Instead, most light is reflected internally.
  • It does not lose trapped heat into the environment.

Source: TH

10. Largest Indian Data Leak: 815 Million People’s COVID Test Data on Sale, Samples Verified

Subject :Science and Tech

Section: AWARENESS IN IT

Context:

• The COVID information of nearly 815 million citizens of India has leaked. This is likely the largest data leak in India till date.

Details:

• The data was held by the Indian Council for Medical Research (ICMR).
• Data leak was noticed by the American cybersecurity and intelligence agency, Resecurity.
• The ICMR COVID-19 test samples amounted to over 90 GB according to the breach forum sale post. The file was available in XIP-CSV format.
• The Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (Cert-In) has alerted the ICMR about the data breach.

The information in the COVID test data sale included:

• Names
• Phone numbers
• Addresses
• Passport information
• Aadhaar card

CERT-In:

• Formed in 2004 under the Information Technology Act, 2000.
• The Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In or ICERT) is an office within the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology of the Government of India.
• It is the nodal agency to deal with cyber security threats like hacking and phishing. It strengthens security-related defence of the Indian Internet domain.
• CERT-IN has overlapping responsibilities with other agencies such as National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC) which is under the National Technical Research Organisation (NTRO) that comes under the Prime Minister’s Office and the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) which is under Ministry of Home Affairs.

Indian initiatives for cyber security:

• National Cyber Security Strategy
• Cyber Surakshit Bharat Initiative.
• Cyber Swachhta Kendra.
• Online cybercrime reporting portal.
• Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C).
• National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC).
• Information Technology Act, 2000.

Dark web or Darknet:

• The darknet is a part of the internet that cannot be accessed through traditional search engines like Google nor is it accessible by normal browsers like chrome or safari.
• Darknet is a part of the deep web, but the deep web is accessible whereas the darknet is deliberately hidden.
• It uses non-standard communication protocols which make it inaccessible to internet service providers (ISPs) or government authorities.
• The content of darknet is encrypted and requires specific browsers such as TOR (The Onion Ring), FreeNet, Invisible Internet Project (I2P), TAILS (The Amnesic Incognito Live System), Whonix browser to access those pages.

Source: CyberExpress

11. The Sun’s activity cycle is reaching its peak early: Knowing why could help us unlock the secrets of our star

Subject :Science and Tech

Section: SPACE TECHNOLOGY

Solar activity:

• The Sun shows extensive variation and activity.
• Bright explosions called flares regularly cause huge outbreaks of radiation. Darker, cooler areas called sunspots emerge, move, change shape and vanish. The Sun also releases material into space in powerful eruptions, called solar particle events.
  • Solar particle events can disable satellites and disrupt electrical grids. Activity from the Sun that affects our planet is often referred to as “space weather”.
• This solar activity varies with time and peaks every 11 years — and the next high point has been forecast for July 2025.
• But researchers have predicted that this “solar maximum” will arrive earlier than expected.

Predicting solar activity:

• NASA and the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration are developing various methods to predict solar activity.
• An alternative forecast has been published by a team led by Nasa scientist Robert Leamon and Scott McIntosh that says the cycle’s peak will occur a year earlier in mid-late 2024 and sunspot numbers will be twice the official prediction — an indication of activity.
• This prediction is done by looking at the actual sunspots and their magnetic properties.
  • When a solar cycle ends, it is not instantaneous. It is a gentle transition where fewer sunspots appear with magnetic properties linked to the old cycle and more appear with properties linked to the new cycle.

Solar activities cause:

• Auroras in northern and southern poles of earth
• It can cause power surges in the long transmission lines used in electrical grids.
• It can cause a change of particle density in the high atmosphere.
• It can also lead to slight heating of our outer atmosphere, making it extend further into space. This increases the thickness of the atmosphere for satellites in low Earth orbit.
• Solar storms could strike the earth’s atmosphere causing electrical problems on satellites.

Source: DTE

12. Indian farmers taxed $169 bn via export bans or restrictions in 2022: OECD report

Subject :Economy

Section: External Sector

Context:

• Indian farmers were implicitly taxed $169 billion in 2022 due to export bans, duties or permits on several commodities like wheat and rice, to stabilize prices for consumers, the latest Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) assessment on agricultural policy and support globally has pointed out.

Details:

• This drove the overall market price support (MPS) to farmers in negative in 2022.
• India’s negative MPS policy taxation constituted over 80 per cent of all such taxes globally in 2022.
  • Among 54 countries analyzed in the report, implicit taxation to farmers was about $200 billion.
• Commodities affected included various types of rice, wheat, sugar, onions, and related products (like wheat flour).
• Other emerging economies which had a negative MPS, managed to offset it through other budgetary support, bringing the net support in positive figures.

Market price support (MPS):

• MPS is the benefit or loss farmers receive by having domestic prices that do not reflect those of world prices.
• It is the annual monetary value of gross transfers from consumers and taxpayers to agricultural producers, arising from policy measures that create a gap between domestic market prices and border prices of a specific agricultural commodity, measured at the farm gate level.
• In India’s case, different budgetary transfers to farmers in the form of large subsidies for variable input use, such as fertilizers, electricity, and irrigation water, PM-KISAN, did not offset the price-depressing effect of domestic marketing regulations and trade policy measures.
• India introduced export bans, duties or permits on several commodities in 2022 to stabilize fluctuations in domestic prices following the outbreak of war in Ukraine and also due to the 2022 heatwave.
• The export restrictions directly affect India’s reliability as a supplier and exacerbate the persistent challenge of low farm incomes.

Producers’ support estimates (PSE):

• Developed by OECD
• It is the international measure of a government’s budgetary and other subsidies to farmers.
• OECD uses this for its annual tracking of global agriculture supports. In simple terms, this measure estimates what a farmer receives at the farm gate.
• Producer support was estimated to have declined in 2022 due to falling market price support, but still remains higher than pre-pandemic levels.
• The types of support considered to have the potential to be the most distorting are payments based on output and payments based on the unconstrained use of variable inputs.
• These forms of support are much more prevalent in emerging economies than in OECD nations.

Minimum export price (MEP):

• It is the price below which an exporter is not allowed to export the commodity from India.
• It is imposed in view of the rising domestic retail / wholesale price or production disruptions in the country.
• It is a kind of quantitative restriction to trade.
• Government fixes MEP for the selected commodities with a view to arrest domestic price rise and augment domestic supply.
• This is intended to be imposed for short durations and is removed when situations change.
• The removal of MEP helps farmers / exporters in realising better and remunerative prices.
• MEP was first implemented on basmati rice in FY11 to deter exports, and is typically implemented to contain surging domestic prices because of production disruptions.
• Legal backing:
  • As per section 5 of the The Foreign Trade (Development And Regulation) Act, 1992, the Central Government may, from time to time, formulate and announce by notification in the Official Gazette, the export and import policy and may also, in the like manner, amend that policy.

Source: Live Mint

13. SC puts Maharashtra Speaker on deadline over defection pleas

Subject : Polity

Section: Parliament

Context:

The Supreme Court on Monday directed Maharashtra Assembly Speaker Rahul Narwekar to decide disqualification petitions filed under the Tenth Schedule (anti defection law) of the Constitution against the Chief Minister Eknath Shinde camp in the  Shiv Sena dispute by December 31, 2023.

Key Themes:

• The Supreme Court consistently emphasizes the need for an unbiased mechanism, possibly an independent tribunal, to handle disqualification cases.
• Concerns about the Speaker’s delay in addressing disqualification petitions and potential challenges in the certification of Bills as Money Bills.

Data Highlights from the Article:

• Parliamentary Standing Committees Referral: During 2004-14, over 60% of Bills in the Lok Sabha were referred to committees for detailed scrutiny. However, from 2014-2023, this referral rate dropped to less than 25%.
• Suspension Instances: Adhir Ranjan Chowdhury (Congress) swiftly suspended for remarks against the PM, later revoked. Ramesh Bidhuri (BJP) faced no swift action for passing communal slurs against an MP.
• Challenges in Maharashtra Assembly: Unconstitutional suspension of 12 BJP MLAs for a year in July 2021, set aside by the Supreme Court.
• Defection Decision Delays: Inaction by the Maharashtra Assembly Speaker on disqualification petitions pending since July 2022. The Supreme Court recommends an independent tribunal for timely decisions on defection cases.
• Certification of Bills Challenges: Ongoing challenges in the Court regarding the certification of certain Bills as Money Bills by the Lok Sabha Speaker.
• International Speaker Practices: In Britain, the Speaker resigns from their political party upon election and seeks re-election as an impartial Speaker. This practice is not followed in India.

Speaker’s Functions and Gaps:

• Dual functions of certifying Bills as Money Bills and deciding on disqualification under the Tenth Schedule.
• Misuse of suspension provisions against Opposition members, highlighting instances of bias.
• Failure to refer significant Bills to Parliamentary Standing Committees affecting parliamentary functioning.
• Custodianship of the rights and privileges of the House, its committees, and members.

Challenges in Deciding Disqualification:

• Misuse of powers against Opposition members, unequal treatment for remarks against leaders.
• Delayed or inadequate actions on disqualification petitions, undermining stability in governance.
• Past instances show Speakers favoring ruling dispensation, raising concerns over neutrality.
• Proposal for an independent tribunal, recommended by the Supreme Court, to handle disqualification cases.
• Maharashtra Assembly Speaker’s inaction on pending disqualification petitions despite court directions.

Key Supreme Court Judgments Simplified

Kihoto Hollohan (1992):

• Minority judges believed that giving the Speaker power to decide defections violated democratic principles.
• The case suggests the need for an independent tribunal, headed by judges, to handle defection cases.

Keisham Meghachandra Singh vs The Hon’ble Speaker Manipur (2020):

• The Supreme Court recommended a constitutional amendment for an independent tribunal to decide defections.
• The ongoing inaction of the Maharashtra Assembly Speaker on disqualification petitions was highlighted.

Once a Speaker, Always a Speaker:

• Comparison with Britain’s practice where the Speaker resigns from the political party for impartiality.
• Indian Speakers rarely exercise the option to resign from their political party, impacting perceived impartiality.

Way Forward and Reforms:

• Adoption of British practices to instill confidence, emphasizing Speaker’s impartiality.
• Urgent need for Speakers to demonstrate impartiality, even if formal reforms are pending.
• Consideration of reforms such as an independent tribunal for handling disqualification cases.
• Urgent measures needed to address challenges and restore faith in the institution of the Speaker.
• Speakers must commit to displaying impartiality, aligning their functions with democratic principles.

14. The act of photocopying: its origins, working and wide-ranging impact

Subject : Polity

Section: Legislations in news

Introduction:

• In his essay “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction,” the German philosopher Walter Benjamin underscores how mass reproduction affects art within a capitalist society.
• The advent of xerography, a dry photocopying method, revolutionized the way textual material is reproduced and disseminated.
• Xerography’s impact extends beyond simple reproduction to copyright, surveillance, counterfeiting, and even the art scene.

What is photocopying?

• Broadly, photocopying is a set of techniques used to duplicate content using, among other things, light.
• However, the contemporary colloquial use of the word ‘photocopying’ refers almost exclusively to xerography. Both the word ‘xerography’ and the name ‘Xerox’ come from the Greek root word ‘xero’, meaning ‘dry’.

Understanding Xerography

• Xerography, derived from the Greek word “xero” (meaning dry), involves a photocopying technique that doesn’t require liquid chemicals.
• In xerography, a photoconductive surface is negatively charged, exposed to light, and used to duplicate printed material.
• A powdery substance called toner is applied to the charged surface, transferred to a sheet of paper, and heated to create a copy.

Invention of Xerography

• Inspired by Hungarian engineer Paul Selenyi, American attorney Chester F. Carlson developed xerography in 1938.
• Carlson sold his idea to the Battelle Memorial Institute in Ohio, where researchers refined the technique.
• The New York-based Haloid Photographic Company purchased a licence from Battelle and introduced the first Xerox machine in 1949.

Impact of Xerography

• Counterfeiting: Xerox machines have mechanisms to prevent the photocopying of banknotes with specific markings, making counterfeiting more challenging.
• Copyright and Education: Xerography enabled the reproduction of educational material at a low cost, benefiting students and institutions. It has also raised questions about copyright infringement.
• Art and Creative Expression: Xerography empowered artists, musicians, and writers to self-publish, advertise events, and explore their creative expressions outside traditional galleries and museums.

15. India seek formal talk at WTO for reform in dispute resolution body

Subject : IR

Section: International organisations

Context: India seek formal talk at WTO for reform in dispute resolution body

More about the news:

• India is urging for the prompt commencement of formal discussions to restore the functionality of the World Trade Organization’s (WTO) dispute settlement system. 
• The US actions caused the system to become non-functional, has initiated informal talks on reforms.
• India is advocating for the shift to a formal committee setting to facilitate participation from other WTO members.
• While India has not submitted any reform proposals yet, it is emphasizing the need for a two-tier system with an appellate body.
• The dispute settlement system has been stalled since 2017 due to the US blocking appointments to the appellate body. This absence of an appeal mechanism has left WTO dispute rulings unenforceable.
• The goal is to make the system operational by 2024, with discussions ongoing, leading up to the WTO Ministerial Meeting in February 2024.

What is the Dispute Settlement System of the WTO:

• The Dispute Settlement System (DSS) came into existence in 1994.
• It came into existence through the 8 year long Uruguay Round negotiations (1986-1994) to govern trade disputes between member states of the WTO.
• DSS is termed as the ‘crown jewel’ of the WTO.

What is WTO Dispute Settlement Body (DSB):

• The General Council convenes as the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) to deal with disputes between WTO members.
• Such disputes may arise with respect to any agreement contained in the Final Act of the Uruguay Round that is subject to the Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes (DSU).
• The DSB has authority to establish dispute settlement panels, refer matters to arbitration, adopt panel, Appellate Body and arbitration reports, maintain surveillance over the implementation of recommendations and rulings contained in such reports, and authorize suspension of concessions in the event of non-compliance with those recommendations and rulings.

What is WTO Appellate Body:

• The Appellate Body was set up in 1995,
• It is a standing committee of seven members that presides over appeals against judgments passed in trade-related disputes brought by WTO members.
• Countries involved in a dispute over measures purported to break a WTO agreement or obligation can approach the Appellate Body if they feel the report of the panel set up to examine the issue needs to be reviewed on points of law.
• The members of the appellate body are appointed by the DSB for 4-year terms.
•  A panel for appeals comprises three from the seven-member Appellate Body.
• The Appellate Body members are persons with demonstrated expertise in law, international trade and the subject matter of the WTO agreements.
• The Appellate Body can uphold, modify, or reverse the legal findings of the panel that heard the dispute. Countries on either or both sides of the dispute can appeal.

What are the stages in WTO Dispute Settlement:

• Once a complaint has been filed with the WTO, there are two main ways to resolve a dispute:
  • Mutually Acceptable Solution: The parties reach a mutually acceptable solution, particularly during the phase of bilateral consultations;
  • Adjudication: It includes the subsequent implementation of the panel and Appellate Body reports, which are binding on the parties once adopted by the DSB.
• The WTO dispute settlement process is divided into three stages:
  • Parties’ discussions;
  • Adjudication by panels and, if relevant, by the Appellate Body.
  • Ruling implementation includes the potential of countermeasures if the losing party fails to implement the ruling.

16. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

Subject : IR

Section: International conventions

Context: In his keynote address at the fourth edition of the Goa Maritime Conclave Rajnath Singh has laid stress on the rule-based maritime order.

What is the Goa Maritime Conclave (GMC)

• The GMC serves as an outreach initiative by the Indian Navy, creating a multinational platform for collaboration between maritime security practitioners and academia to generate practical maritime insights.
• Previously, this biennial event was conducted in 2017, 2019, and 2021.
• The 4th edition of the GMC is being held from October 29 to 31 under the auspices of the Indian Navy and in partnership with the Naval War College in Goa.
• During GMC-23, Admiral R Hari Kumar, Chief of the Naval Staff, will be hosting chiefs of navies, heads of maritime forces, and senior representatives from 12 Indian Ocean littoral countries. These countries include Bangladesh, Comoros, Indonesia, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mauritius, Myanmar, Seychelles, Singapore, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
• The theme for the 2023 GMC is “Maritime Security in the Indian Ocean Region: Converting Common Maritime Priorities into Collaborative Mitigating Frameworks.”

What is United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS):

• The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) is a global treaty that was adopted and signed in 1982, effectively replacing the four Geneva Conventions from April 1958.
• These conventions covered various aspects, including the territorial sea and the contiguous zone, the continental shelf, the high seas, and issues related to fishing and the preservation of living resources in the high seas.
• As per UNCLOS, the sea is divided into 5 parts:
  • Internal Waters
  • Territorial sea
  • Contiguous Zone
  • Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
  • High Seas
• The Convention has created three new institutions on the international scene:
  • The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
  • The International Seabed Authority
  • The Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf
• It is the only international agreement that lays forth a structure for state authority in maritime areas.

17. Citizens right to know subject to reasonable restrictions

Subject : Polity

Section: Elections

Context: Centre told Supreme Court on electoral bonds that Citizens right to know is subjected to reasonable restrictions

More about the news:

• Attorney General R Venkataramani has stated that the citizens’ right to know is subject to reasonable restrictions, in response to petitions challenging the electoral bonds scheme that will be heard by the Supreme Court.
• Venkataramani argues that there is no general right to know everything without reasonable restrictions, and the right to know for the purpose of expression must have specific ends or purposes.
• He opposes the idea that citizens have an unrestricted right to access details of contributions to political parties, arguing that such a right is overly broad.
• Venkataramani also mentions previous Supreme Court rulings related to informed choices about electoral candidates and argues that they do not establish a right to information about political party funding under Article 19(1)(a) of the Constitution.
• He defends the confidentiality of the Electoral Bonds Scheme, emphasizing that it promotes clean money contributions and tax compliance.
• The Attorney General suggests that the scheme does not infringe upon existing rights and cannot be considered repugnant to any constitutional right.
• He also opposes the idea of court-driven guidelines on this matter and suggests that contributions to political parties are subjects for political debate and governance accountability rather than judicial intervention.

What is the issue all about:

• A five-judge constitution bench of the Supreme Court presided by Chief Justice of India D Y Chandrachud will hear petitions challenging the 2018 Electoral Bonds Scheme
• The bench will also comprise Justices Sanjeev Khanna, B R Gavai, J B Pardiwala and Manoj Misra.
• A batch of petitions was filed by various parties, including the NGO Association for Democratic Reforms, CPI(M), Congress leader Jaya Thakur, and an individual named Spandan Biswal.
• On October 16, a three-judge bench presided by Chief Justice Chandrachud referred the petitions to a Constitution bench and scheduled the hearing for October 31.
• The decision to refer the case to a Constitution bench was based on the significance of the issue and Article 145(3) of the Constitution, which requires at least five judges to hear cases involving substantial constitutional questions.
• The electoral bond scheme, introduced in the 2017 Union Budget, allows for anonymous donations to political parties. The government claims it is a step toward electoral reform, ensuring transparency and accountability.
• The petitioners argue that the scheme makes political funding less transparent, as it allows political parties not to disclose their annual contribution reports to the Election Commission of India (ECI) or reveal the identities of bond donors.

What was Supreme Court previous judgements:

• In April 2019, a three-judge Supreme Court bench directed political parties that received donations through electoral bonds to submit details of the bonds to the ECI.
• The Supreme Court had previously dismissed a request to halt the sale of new bonds in March 2021, disputing the claim that the bond scheme provides complete anonymity to donors. The court noted that it had already ordered certain safeguards in its April 2019 interim order.
• The court also mentioned that the Election Commission had received details of contributions made through bonds as per the April 2019 order.
• The Supreme Court expressed uncertainty regarding the extent of anonymity in political party financing by corporate houses, both within India and abroad, under the scheme. The court questioned whether the allegation of complete anonymity was sustainable at this stage.

What has the ECI’s stance been

• The Election Commission of India (ECI) expressed strong objections to amendments in the Representation of the People Act (RPA) that exempted political parties from disclosing donations received through electoral bonds in May 2017.
• They considered this exemption as a regressive step and urged the government to reconsider and modify these amendments.
• Additionally, in March 2019, the ECI highlighted concerns about changes in the law that allowed political parties to accept contributions from foreign companies.
• They believed this could lead to unchecked foreign funding of political parties and the potential influence of foreign companies on Indian policies

What are the features of Electoral Bonds Scheme:

• A person being an individual can buy Electoral Bonds, either singly or jointly with other individuals. 
• The bonds are like banknotes that are payable to the bearer on demand and are interest-free.
• Only the Political Parties registered under Section 29A of the Representation of the People Act, 1951 and which secured not less than one percent of the votes polled in the last General Election to the House of the People or the Legislative Assembly of the State, shall be eligible to receive the Electoral Bonds.
• The Finance Act(s) of 2016 and 2017 amended four separate legislations to make way for the electoral bonds scheme, including the Foreign Contribution Regulation Act, 2010; the RPA, 1951; the Income Tax Act, 1961; and the Companies Act, 2013.

What is the procedure to purchase the electoral bond:

• The State Bank of India  has been authorized to issue and encash Electoral Bonds through its 29 Authorized Branches.
• The bonds are sold by the SBI in denominations of Rs 1,000, Rs 10,000, Rs 1 lakh, Rs 10 lakh and Rs 1 crore.
• One can purchase these bonds only digitally or through cheques.
• The Electoral Bonds can be encashed by an eligible Political Party only through a Bank account with the Authorized Bank.
• The Electoral Bond deposited by an eligible Political Party in its account is credited on the same day.
• Electoral Bonds shall be valid for fifteen calendar days from the date of issue and no payment is being made to any payee Political Party if the Electoral Bond is deposited after expiry of the validity period.

18. Proposed mosque in Ayodhya gets a new name and design

Subject : History

Section: Art and Culture

Context: Ayodhya Mosque to be built on five acres of land (as a replacement for the demolished Babri masjid in 1992), as per the 2019 Supreme Court verdict.

• The mosque gets a new name and design after objections from the community on its previous ‘contemporary’ style.
• The new design is prepared by a Pune-based architect, Imran Sheikh.
• The new design of the mosque, unlike the previous blueprint which had no stereotypical domes and arches, has everything that makes it easily recognisable as a religious structure of the Muslim community. It also has minarets, a crescent moon, considered auspicious in Islam, as well as the name of the Prophet.
• The name of the mosque, to be spread across over 4,500 square metres, will be Mohammad Bin Abdullah.
• Earlier, the name of the mosque was ‘Masjid-e-Ayodhya’ with a zero-carbon-footprint design.
• The previous blueprint of the mosque had a hospital, community kitchen, library, and a research center dedicated to Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah, a freedom fighter, who took part in the 1857 war of independence against the British.
• In the new design, the giant mosque sits in the middle of a complex full of greenery around.

The SC Verdict of 2019 and its aftermath:

• In November 2019, the Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court permitted the construction of a temple in Ayodhya, at the site where the 16th century Babri Masjid once stood, after being brought down by Hindu fundamentalist groups.
• The top court had asked the government — either the Centre or Uttar Pradesh — to allot a “prominent and suitable” five-acre plot in Ayodhya to the Sunni Central Waqf Board, to construct a mosque. “This should be done simultaneously with the transfer of the property to the proposed trust [for the temple],” the order had said.
• The Sunni Central Waqf Board later formed the Indo Islamic Culture Foundation to execute the construction of the mosque.
• The Uttar Pradesh government allotted five acres of land to IICF in Dhannipur, 25 kms from Ayodhya city.

Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah:

• Ahmadullah Shah, born in 1787, more famously known as Maulavi of Faizabad, was one of the leading figures of the great Indian revolt of 1857.
• In the Awadh region, Maulavi Ahmadullah Shah was known as the ‘Lighthouse of Rebellion’. 
• Hailing from a noble warrior family of Awadh in Faizabad, he grew up to be a political leader committed to armed revolutionary insurrection against British rule in India.
• During the freedom struggle, Maulavi made Faizabad the center and launched revolts in all of the Awadh region.
• He made the local mosque Masjid Sarai located in Chowk area of Faizabad his headquarters.
• Maulavi Ahmadullah Shah kept Faizabad free from British rule for almost one year, until his death at the hands of British agents on June 5, 1858.
• According to researcher and historian Ram Shankar Tripathi, “With being a practicing Muslim, he was also the epitome of religious unity and Ganga-Jamuna culture of Faizabad.”
• In the revolt of 1857, royalties like Nana Sahib of Kanpur, Kunwar Singh of Arrah fought alongside Maulavi Ahmadullah Shah.
• During the revolt, the revolutionaries appointed him as chief of 22nd Infantry Regiment that fought in the famous Battle of Chinhat, in Ismailganj of Lucknow on June 30, 1857.
• According to another historian Roshan Taqui, “Maulavi used to bring out revolutionary pamphlets mobilizing the masses to do ‘Jihad’ against the British.”
• British officers like George Bruce Malleson and Thomas Seaton have made mentions about the courage, valour, personal and organisational capabilities of Maulavi Ahmadullah Shah.
• Malleson has repeatedly mentioned Ahmadullah in the History of Indian Mutiny, a book written in six volumes covering the revolt of 1857.

Characteristic features of Indo-Islamic form of architecture:

• Buildings in Islamic countries were made of brick, lime and mortar.
• Their style was arcuate; meaning architecture based on arches, domes and vaults.
• Muslims under religious injunction avoided the use of human figurines rather they opted for geometrical patterns (arabesque), floral patterns, inscriptions in various styles, inlay on marble (Pietra dura).

• Ornamental, perforated lattice screens with arabesques, star motifs and other geometric designs such as pentagons, hexagons, octagons and circles.
• Gardens were an integral part of Islamic architecture.

Styles of Islamic architecture in the Indian subcontinent:

Imperial style:

• The style of this period is also called the early Indo-Islamic style.
• The existing buildings were converted into mosques with the elements of ruins from Hindu temples.
• The palaces were elaborately decorated and embellished with arches and domes. Floral patterns and other Hindu motifs were used widely.

Provincial style:

• In this style of architecture which lasted for a period of two-hundred-and-fifty years, they created buildings with the locally available materials, combining the regional styles with the typical Muslim features such as domes, arches, the minarets and the mihrabs. 
• Initially they constructed on the ruins of Hindu, and Jain temples, and later they derived their own style in building art.

Mughal style:

• The Mughal style is the style of architecture that flourished in India under the patronage of the Mughal Empire from the mid-16th to the 17th century.
• It is a unique blend of Indo-Islamic and Persian style with Turkish influences.
• The buildings were excellent and remarkably symmetrical in form and uniform in pattern with intricate ornamentation.

Types of Buildings having Islamic Architecture in Indian Subcontinent:

Mosques

• Mosques are the places of congregation where men gather to offer prayers. They are also called “masjids’ and known as a place for prostration (sajdah/sujood).
• They are basically large columned halls known as hypostyle halls and in some of the mosques, Madrasahs are also a part of the same building
• An important element used in the mosque was the “mihrab”. It is the niche in the wall that indicates the direction of Mecca towards which all the Muslims pray.
• The most visible element of the mosque is the “minaret”, the tower which is either adjacent or attached to the mosque from which the call to prayer is announced.
• The most important (but inessential) element of Islamic architecture and a part of the mosque is the “dome” which is also known as “qubba” in Muslim architecture
• Calligraphy is also the most visible decorative element in mosques.

Forts

• They were palaces; a place of accommodation on a larger and more comprehensive scale, thus forming a city within a city
• They were built for the purpose of defence to protect the monarchs and their people from their enemies.
• We can also see the influences of different regional architecture of Gujarat and Punjab in the construction of the forts

 Tombs

• Among the architectural marvels that were built during the Islamic reign in India, the most wonderful, and beautiful structure was the tomb of Mumtaz Mahal, the Taj Mahal, which is an integrated complex of many structures.
• White domed marble, large gardens, pools with fountains reflecting the light, landscape, and four tall standing minarets surrounding the structure imply a symmetrical and a balanced form. This proves the elegance of the Indo-Islamic style of architecture. It is a perfect example of an architectural accomplishment of the Mughal building art.

19. Demolition of the National Museum

Subject : History

Section: art and culture

Context: The National Museum is set to be demolished and the artefacts will be moved to the North and South Blocks. 

• North and South Blocks  will be emptied to become the Yug-Yugeen Bharat Indian Museum.

About the National Museum of India:

Background:

• The blueprint for establishing the National Museum in Delhi was prepared by the Maurice Gwyer Committee in May 1946. 
• An exhibition was organized in the Rashtrapati Bhawan (President’s residence), New Delhi in 1949, which turned out to be a great success.
• This event proved responsible for the creation of the National Museum.
• State Governments, Museum authorities and private donors, who had participated in the exhibition, were approached for the gift or loan of artefacts, and most of them responded generously.
• On August 15, 1949, the National Museum, New Delhi, was inaugurated in the Rashtrapati Bhawan by Shri C. Rajagopalachari, the Governor-General of India.
• The foundation of the present building was laid by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the Prime Minister of India, on May 12, 1955. 
• The first phase of the National Museum Building was formally inaugurated by Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the Vice President of India, on December 18, 1960.
• The second phase of the building was completed in 1989.
• While the Museum continued to grow its collection through gifts that were sought painstakingly, artefacts were collected through its Arts Purchase Committee.

Present Status:

• The Museum presently holds approximately 2,00,000 objects of diverse nature, both Indian as well as foreign, and its holdings cover a time span of more than five thousand years of Indian cultural heritage.
• The National Museum was initially looked after by the Director General of Archaeology until 1957, when the Ministry of Education, Government of India, declared it a separate institution and placed it under its own direct control.
• At present, the National Museum is under the administrative control of the Ministry of Culture, Government of India.

Digitalization of National Museum Collections:

• The National Museum has started a special project to digitize its collection of objects in order to make it available for visitors to see online.
• This process involves digitization and storage of museum collections in a collection management system named ‘JATAN’, a virtual museum builder software that enables creation of digital collection management systems for Indian museums and is deployed in several national museums across India.
• Its objective is to make a digital imprint of all the objects preserved in museums and help researchers, curators and other people interested in the field
• JATAN has been designed and developed by Centre for Development of Smart Computing (C-DAC) Pune.

20. Temples allegedly destroyed by Portuguese in Goa

Subject : History

Section: art and culture

Context: Goa Minister for Archives and Archaeology said that an expert committee formed by the archaeology department has collected information of over 1,000 temples that were allegedly destroyed during the Portuguese rule in Goa.

The Committee has recommended the state government to construct a single memorial for all the temples, stating that it is not “feasible” to reconstruct them all.

• The report of the committee, submitted to the government, revealed that most of the sites where temples were destroyed were in Tiswadi, Bardez and Salcete talukas.
• The panel has recommended that the government construct a memorial temple, since it may not be feasible or practical to reconstruct so many temples.
• Recommendation has been made to reconstruct the Saptakoteshwar temple at Divar island. The shrine was built on the island during the Kadamba dynasty and demolished in the 16th Century by the Portuguese.

Saptakoteshwar Temple:

Saptakoteshwar used to be one of the major deities of the Kadamba dynasty dating back to the 12th century. The temple was built by the King for his wife Kamaldevi. 

History of Saptakoteshwar Temple:

• The original Saptakoteshwar Temple was located in Narve on Divar Island and was built by Kadambas. The Kadamba Kingdom was conquered by the Bahmani Sultan Alauddin Hasan Gangu in 1352, which resulted in the destruction of several temples.
• In 1367, King Harihara conquered Hassan Gangu’s troops and restored the temple to all its former glory.
• However, after 200 years, the temple came under attack once again by the Portuguese conquerors.
• After a war between Shivaji & the Portuguese, the temple was rebuilt in 1688. The stone plaque mentioning this order is installed at the entrance gate.

Religious Significance:

• The name Saptakoteshwar refers to Sapt meaning seven and Koteshwar meaning lord of crores. The most important festival celebrated in the Temple is Gokulashtami, referred to as a day when Lord Shiva incarnated to give boons to the seven sages.
• People also take a dip in the sacred tank named Panchaganga Tirtha with a belief that all their sins and illness will be removed. The name Panchaganga Tirtha signifies the meeting point of five holy rivers.

Legend:

Legend has it that seven holy sages set off to worship Lord Shiva at a place where five holy rivers met the sea. After undergoing penance for seven years, they were blessed with the appearance of Lord Shiva, who agreed to grant all their wishes.

Architectural Features of Saptakoteshwar Temple:

• The Saptakoteshwar Temple is built in the medieval style of architecture.
• There is a small entrance marked with bells, while the main five pillared hall is decorated with arches.
• Intricate designs adorn the ceiling while the Sanctorum wall is composed of plain wood. 
• The temple has a kalash dome mounted on an octagonal drum sloping tiled roofs, and a tall lamp tower or Deepastambha.
• The mandapa of the temple is built in a distinctly European style, which is quite interesting.
• Brahminical laterite and stone caves surround the temple.
• In the area close to the temple, there once existed a Jain Math, whose ruins are visible even today. 

Kadambas of Goa:

• The Kadambas of Goa were a dynasty during the Late Classical period on the Indian subcontinent, who ruled Goa from the 10th to the 14th century CE.
• They took over the territories of the Shilaharas and ruled them at first from Chandor, later making Gopakapattana their capital.
• According to the Talagunda inscription found in Shimoga in Karnataka, the Kadambas have descended from Mayurasharma.
• During the rule of the Kadambas, the name and fame of Goapuri reached its zenith.
• Goa’s religion, culture, trade and arts flourished and the dynasty built many Shiva temples. 
• They married the royalty of Saurashtra and even local chieftains.
• The kings patronized the Vedic religion and performed major fire sacrifices (yagna) and Ashvamedha yagna.
• They popularized Hinduism and patronized Jainism.
• The languages of Kadamba administration were Sanskrit and Kannada. 
• They introduced the Kannada language to Goa, where it exercised a profound influence on the local language.
• The Nagari, Kadamba, Halekannada and Goykanadi scripts were very popular.
• It is known from another inscription that Tribhuvanamalla established a Brahmapuri at Gopaka.
• Brahmapuris were ancient universities run by Brahmins, where Vedas, astrology, philosophy, medicine, and other subjects were taught.
• Kadambas ruled Goa for more than 400 years, until 1345 CE.

Goa Government-owned bus service is named after the Kadambas Dynasty and is known as Kadamba Transport Corporation. The royal lion emblem of the Kadambas is used as a logo on its buses.