Daily Prelims Notes 26 December 2024

December 26, 2024
Posted by: OptimizeIAS Team
Category: DPN

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Daily Prelims Notes

26 December 2024

Table Of Contents

1. Forest fires increased 1339% in Himachal Pradesh, 2822% in J&K: SOFR 2023

Sub: Geo

Sec: Indian Physical Geo

Context:

India’s mountain regions, particularly Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir, are witnessing an unprecedented surge in forest fire incidents, according to the State of Forest Report 2023.

Key Findings:

Unprecedented Increase in Mountain Regions
- Himachal Pradesh recorded a 1,339% increase in forest fire incidents.
- Jammu & Kashmir witnessed an even more dramatic rise of 2,822%.
- Uttarakhand saw a 293% increase, with districts like Nainital, Pauri Garhwal, and Shimla among the top 20 most affected areas.
Largest Affected Forest Areas
- Andhra Pradesh: 5,287 sq km
- Maharashtra: 4,095 sq km
- Telangana: 3,983 sq km
State-Specific Trends
- Significant Increases:
  - Punjab (400%), Delhi (128%), Rajasthan (111%), Haryana (102%), Sikkim (106%).
  - Tamil Nadu (69%), Uttar Pradesh (36%), Gujarat (35%), Mizoram (14%), Telangana (2.8%).
- Union Territories:
  - Ladakh (60%), Andaman and Nicobar Islands (5%).
- Major Reductions:
  - Goa (75%), Karnataka (57%).

Underlying Concerns:

The sudden surge in incidents in the Himalayan states raises questions about climatic factors, forest management, and monitoring efficacy.
Dry deciduous forests are particularly prone to fires, while evergreen, semi-evergreen, and montane temperate forests are less susceptible.

Why do dry deciduous forests have higher fire susceptibility compared to other forest types?

Dry Deciduous Forests – High Fire Risk:

Seasonal leaf shedding creates a thick layer of dry leaves and twigs on the forest floor that acts as fuel
These forests experience distinct dry seasons with low humidity and high temperatures, creating ideal conditions for fires
The open canopy allows more sunlight to reach the forest floor, drying out the leaf litter faster
Undergrowth tends to be dry and sparse, allowing fires to spread quickly

Evergreen, Semi-evergreen, and Montane Temperate Forests – Lower Fire Risk:

Dense, closed canopy that:
- Maintains higher humidity levels underneath
- Reduces wind speed within the forest
- Blocks direct sunlight, keeping the forest floor cooler and moister
Year-round leaf retention means:
- Less dry leaf litter accumulation
- More consistent moisture levels in the ecosystem
- Better regulation of forest microclimate
Higher moisture content:
- Regular rainfall or fog in montane forests
- More humid conditions due to altitude
- Better water retention in soil and vegetation

2. Biodiversity credit markets show promise but face ‘deep uncertainties’ new study warns

Sub: Sci

Sec: Biodiversity

What Are Biodiversity Credits?

Represent measurable, evidence-based units of positive biodiversity outcomes.
Quantified by comparing scenarios with and without project interventions.
Global Framework and Goals:
- Prominent in discussions at global conferences, including the 2022 Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.
- Part of innovative financing mechanisms (e.g., green bonds, biodiversity offsets) to mobilize $200 billion annually by 2030 for conservation.
How They Work:
- Credits are generated through verified conservation activities
- Can include habitat restoration, species protection, or ecosystem enhancement
- Must demonstrate measurable biodiversity improvements
- Purchased by companies to offset their biodiversity impacts
Key Features:
- Usually site-specific and non-transferable between ecosystems
- Require baseline assessments and ongoing monitoring
- Need third-party verification and certification
- Often involve long-term commitments to maintain biodiversity gains

Key Methodological Challenges:

Definition and Quantification of Biodiversity Units:
- Most methodologies define biodiversity credits based on area (e.g., hectares) rather than a universal metric like carbon credits (1 tonne of CO₂).
- Metrics often reduce biodiversity’s complexity to simplistic numeric values, ignoring species interactions, cultural significance, and intrinsic biodiversity value.
Fungibility Issues:
- Biodiversity credits lack interchangeability due to biodiversity’s unique, place-specific nature.
- Example: An isolated forest patch cannot equate to one in a connected landscape.
Detection and Tracking Outcomes
- Monitoring conservation or restoration over time is riddled with uncertainties.
- Short-term assessments (e.g., butterfly populations) risk misjudging project success due to natural yearly variations.
Demonstrating Additionality
- Proving biodiversity gains beyond “business-as-usual” scenarios is costly and uncertain.
- Revenues from biodiversity credits may substitute public funding, undermining true additionality.
Addressing Leakage
- Leakage occurs when conservation activities displace harmful practices elsewhere (e.g., converting new land for agriculture).
- Most methodologies lack effective strategies to quantify or mitigate leakage risks.

Regulatory and Market Concerns

Current market value estimated at $8 million, projected to grow to $2 billion by 2030 and $69 billion by 2050 (World Economic Forum).
Regulatory Gaps:
- Lack of standardized methodologies creates risks of misrepresentation and inefficiency.
- Effective regulation requires transparency, industry commitment, and civil society scrutiny.
Project Durations:
- Credits are issued for varying periods (e.g., 5 years, but can range from 1 month to project duration), complicating long-term accountability.

3. Nearly 20% of species residing in UNESCO’s world heritage marine sites live in unsuitably warm waters

Sub: Sci

Sec: Biodiversity

Context:

Nearly 20% of species in 21 UNESCO World Heritage marine sites are living at or beyond their thermal limits, making them vulnerable to temperature changes.
The report, Engaging Communities to Safeguard Ocean Life, highlights the effects of ocean warming on marine species and ecosystems.

Key Findings:

Species Affected: 881 species out of 4,406 mapped are at risk, including: 342 fish species, 135 algae species, 76 mollusc species.
- 5 mammal species: Atlantic bottlenose dolphin, West Indian manatee, southern elephant seal, True’s beaked whale, Crabeater seal
- 7 shark species: Lesser sandshark, Whitespotted eagle ray, Caribbean reef shark, Southern stingray, Krefft’s ray, Lemon shark, Yellow stingray
Thermal Limit Hotspots:
- Belize Barrier Reef: 53% of species living near their thermal limits.
- Coiba National Park (Panama): 26.6% of species at risk.
- Everglades National Park (USA): 24.4% of species at risk.
- Banc d’Arguin National Park (Mauritania): 23.9% of species at risk.
- Sundarbans (Bay of Bengal): 19.8% of species living beyond thermal limits.
Ocean Heat Trends:
- Global sea surface temperature (SST) is 1°C higher than 140 years ago.
- Ocean heat content has impacted all the six major oceans since 1998. The Southern Ocean has seen the most significant warming since 1998.

Implications of Ocean Warming:

Adaptation or Migration:
- Species may migrate to cooler waters, but some may not adapt effectively.
- Tropical species are particularly vulnerable due to limited recent exposure to high temperatures.
Reproductive Stress:
- Warm waters impair reproductive rates (e.g., female sperm whales struggle to conceive).
- Stress levels in marine mammals rise, reducing survival rates.
Food Chain Disruption:
- Species like North Atlantic right whales face food shortages due to prey migration.
- Key habitats for fish, lobsters, oysters, and crabs are shifting.
Oxygen and Nutrient Cycles:
- Changes in water movement reduce oxygen levels and nutrient circulation.
- Altered bacterial behavior impacts water and atmospheric characteristics.
Pathogen Vulnerability:
- Migrating species are exposed to new pathogens, increasing disease risks.

4. PM to distribute 58 lakh property cards to provide ‘record of rights’

Sub : Schemes

Sec: E Gov

Context:

In a significant milestone, Prime Minister Narendra Modi is set to distribute 58 lakh property cards to landowners in 50,000 villages across 12 states under the Svamitva scheme.
The property cards issued under the scheme are now recognized by banks, making it easier for landowners to obtain loans and financial support.

About Svamitva Scheme:

The Svamitva (Survey of Villages and Mapping with Improvised Technology in Village Areas) is a Central Sector Scheme launched in 2020 by the Ministry of Panchayati Raj.
Its primary objective is to digitize land and property records in rural areas to provide property rights and legal ownership to landowners.
Property card for every property in the village will be prepared by states using accurate measurements delivered by drone-mapping.
The scheme is expected to be completed by 2026, covering 31 States and Union Territories.
States like West Bengal, Bihar, Nagaland, and Meghalaya have not joined the scheme yet.
Further, Sikkim, Telangana, and Tamil Nadu participated only in the pilot phase and Telangana and Bihar have introduced their own versions of the scheme.

Objectives of the Scheme:

To create accurate and transparent property records, particularly in rural and unrecorded areas.
The scheme aims to enable rural property owners to leverage their property for loans and financial services from banks and other financial institutions.
By providing legal recognition of land ownership, the scheme intends to reduce disputes and conflicts regarding land ownership.
In some cases, the scheme has helped establish women’s ownership over property, promoting gender equity in rural areas.
The property records can be used for better village planning and identifying open spaces for community development.

5. U.S. and China renew S&T Agreement

Sub : IR

Sec: Places in news

Context:

China and the S. agreed to extend their Agreement on Cooperation in Science and Technology (S&T) for an additional five years, effective from August 27, 2024. A protocol to amend the agreement was also signed.
This agreement, first signed in 1979 under Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping and U.S. President Jimmy Carter, has been renewed every five years, expanding its scope over time.

Importance of Bilateral S&T Agreements:

They facilitate joint research, mobility between the countries for students and scientists, encourage institutional cooperation, and set up bilateral research centres.
India has such agreements with 83 countries.

Renewed U.S.-China S&T Agreement: Key Features

In response to growing tensions, particularly over technology exports, the renewed agreement includes provisions for researcher safety, data reciprocity.
The agreement will be confined to basic research and previously identified themes of mutual benefit, limiting scope to avoid potential misuse.
Critical and emerging technologies (e.g., AI, quantum computing, advanced semiconductors) are excluded to address concerns that China might gain disproportionate benefits at the U.S.’s expense, especially regarding intellectual property rights.

Gains for the US:

Access to China’s Research Ecosystem that has grown significantly.
The number of joint publications between Chinese and U.S. researchers has grown substantially, covering a wide range of scientific fields.
The agreement has allowed the U.S. to maintain influence over China’s technological rise, ensuring that cooperation is not solely one-sided.
The agreement facilitated the growth in the number of Chinese students in the U.S, from 2,770 in 1985 to 109,525 in 2000, which has contributed to scientific and educational exchange.

China’s progress:

The Agreement catalysed China’s transformation from a ‘junior partner’ in 1979 to a formidable competitor in 2024.
Over the years, China’s spending on R&D has surged, from $375 million in 1979 to $442 billion in 2021, making it the second-largest R&D spender globally after the U.S.

6. No-detention policy scrapped: How Punjab raised concerns over the policy years ago and re-introduced board exams for class 5 and class 8 students

Sub : Schemes

Sec: education

Context:

Centre has decided to scrap the no-detention policy in schools governed by it, including Kendriya Vidyalayas and Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas.
The new rules apply to Class 5 and Class 8 students, allowing them to be held back if they do not meet the promotion criteria in the regular examination.
This change is effective from the current academic session.

New Rules for Promotion:

Under the renewed policy, students in Class 5 and Class 8 who fail to meet the promotion criteria at the end of the academic year will be provided extra teaching and support.
A re-examination will be conducted within two months after the results are declared.
If the student still does not meet the promotion criteria after the re-exam, they can be held back and not promoted to the next class.
These changes came after a 2019 amendment to the Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009, which allowed the government to decide on holding back students in Classes 5 and 8.
Since then, 18 states and UTs have scrapped the policy, with Punjab being one of the first to do so.

No-detention policy:

Introduced under the Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009, aimed to reduce dropout rates and promote inclusive education.
Section 16 of the Act says that no child receiving elementary education shall be expelled from school or retained in any class.
It also prohibited schools from detaining students up to Class 8.

Punjab’s case:

Punjab opposed the no-detention policy, citing a drastic fall in learning outcomes due to students being promoted without exams. In 2014, the state passed a resolution to reintroduce board exams for Classes 5 and 8.
Punjab introduced the Learning Outcome Evaluation System (LOES) in 2016, where students were evaluated but not held back. Instead, they were provided remedial coaching and extra attention if needed.
After the 2019 amendment to the RTE Act, which empowered states to hold back students, the state reintroduced board exams for Classes 5 and 8 and began detaining those who failed the re-examination.

7. Scientists find bacteria living on fish brains

Sub : Sci

Sec: Msc

Context:

A new study challenges the long-held belief that the human brain is sterile, protected by the blood-brain barrier, a tightly locked layer of cells that defend your brain from harmful substances. The study reveals that bacteria not only make their way into the brain, but they can also thrive there.
Researchers from the University of New Mexico studied salmon and trout to investigate the presence of bacteria in their brains.

Findings of the study:

Using DNA extraction and microscopic imaging, they identified living bacteria in the fish’s olfactory bulbs, which connects to the nasal cavity, but also in deeper regions of the brain.
One of the striking findings of the study was the direct visual evidence of bacteria crossing the blood-brain barrier.
These microbes seem to have unique adaptations, like producing polyamines that open tight junctions in the blood-brain barrier, allowing them to enter and survive in the brain.
The study suggests that some bacteria may have colonized the brain before the blood-brain barrier fully evolved, while others may have infiltrated via the gut or bloodstream over time.
The researchers propose that these microbes could influence brain function, similar to how the gut microbiome affects digestion, immunity, and mood.

Implications for Human Brain Microbiome:

While the study focused on fish, the findings raise questions about the presence of a brain microbiome in other vertebrates, including humans. If bacteria can thrive in fish brains, it opens the possibility that human brains could also harbour microbial life.

8. Foundation Stone Laid for ₹45000 Crore Ken-Betwa River-Linking Project

Sub : Geo

Sec: Indian Physical Geography

Why in News

Prime Minister Narendra Modi laid the foundation stone for the ₹45,000 crore Ken-Betwa River-Linking Project in Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh. This ambitious project aims to address the water scarcity in the Bundelkhand region and is a significant step in India’s interlinking of rivers initiative.

Ken Betwa Link Project (KBLP):

The Ken-Betwa Link Project (KBLP) is the River interlinking project that aims to transfer surplus water from the Ken river in MP to Betwa in UP to irrigate the drought-prone Bundelkhand region.
The region spread across the districts of two states mainly Jhansi, Banda, Lalitpur and Mahoba districts of UP and Tikamgarh, Panna and Chhatarpur districts of MP.
The project involves building a 77-metre tall and a 2-km wide Dhaudhan dam and a 230-km canal.
Ken-Betwa is one of the 30 river interlinking projects conceived across the country.
The project has been delayed due to political and environmental issues.
It would submerge 58.03 sq. km (10.07%) of critical tiger habitats in the Panna Tiger Reserve and 50% loss to the habitat of a highly endangered vulture species.

Ken, Betwa and Orr Rivers:

Ken and Betwa rivers originate in MP and are the tributaries of Yamuna.
Ken meets with Yamuna in Banda district of UP and with Betwa in Hamirpur district of UP.
Orr river is a tributary of Betwa river.
Rajghat, Paricha and Matatila dams are over Betwa river.
Ken River passes through Panna tiger reserve.

Parbati-Kalisindh-Chambal River-Linking Project:

Recently launched, this project also aims to interlink rivers between Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
With the Ken-Betwa and Parbati-Kalisindh-Chambal projects, Madhya Pradesh is the first state to simultaneously implement two river-linking projects.

Parbati River:

Arises from the Vindhya ranges near Madhya Pradesh. It is a tributary of the Chambal River, primarily serving irrigation in Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.

Kalisindh River:

Emerges from the Vindhya ranges in Dewas district, Madhya Pradesh. It is known for the Kalisindh Thermal Power Project in Rajasthan.

Chambal River:

Rises from Janapav Hills in the Vindhya range, Madhya Pradesh. A major tributary of the Yamuna, it forms the Chambal Ravines and houses the National Chambal Sanctuary for gharials and dolphins.

Other Announcements and Projects Launched:

Floating Solar Energy Project: Inaugurated Madhya Pradesh’s first floating solar power plant in Omkareshwar.
Atal Gram Seva Sadans: Foundation stone laid for 1,153 Atal Gram Seva Sadans to enhance rural governance infrastructure.
Commemorative Stamp and Coin: Released to honor former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee on his birth centenary.

9. Swadesh Darshan Scheme

Sub : Schemes

Sec: Tourism

Why in News

The Union Tourism Ministry has announced that a total of 76 projects under the Swadesh Darshan Scheme have been sanctioned, with 75 of them physically completed. The scheme, launched in 2014-15, has now been revamped as Swadesh Darshan 2.0 to promote sustainable and theme-based tourism.

About Swadesh Darshan Scheme:

Launched in 2015 by the Ministry of Tourism, the Swadesh Darshan Scheme aims to develop sustainable and responsible tourism destinations across India.
It is a 100% centrally funded scheme that supports state governments, Union Territories, and central agencies in creating tourism infrastructure.
The Ministry provides financial support for infrastructure development, including theme-based tourist circuits.
Operation & Maintenance (O&M) is handled by respective State/UT administrations.

Swadesh Darshan 2.0 (SD2.0):

Focus on sustainable and responsible tourism with an integrated approach covering:
- Tourism and allied infrastructure
- Human capital development
- Destination management and promotion
- Policy and institutional reforms
Encourages increased participation from private players in tourism and hospitality. Strengthens partnerships for operation and maintenance of assets.
Introduced challenge-based destination development, identifying 42 destinations for development across various tourism themes.

Significance:

Enhances employment opportunities and boosts local economies, especially in remote regions.
Focus on heritage, eco-tourism, spiritual, and adventure tourism, catering to diverse tourist interests.
Contributes to SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) and SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production).
Integrates responsible tourism practices, ensuring environmental and cultural preservation.

10. Transforming Tsunami Science: Lessons from the 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake

Sub : Geo

Sec: Geomorphology

Why in News

The year 2024 marks two decades since the catastrophic 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, one of the deadliest natural disasters in recorded history. This anniversary provides an opportunity to reflect on advancements in tsunami science, disaster preparedness, and mitigation efforts inspired by this event.

2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake:

The earthquake originated 30 km below the ocean floor in the Sunda Trench, where the Indo-Australian plate subducts beneath the Burma microplate.
It tore through a 1,300 km stretch from Sumatra to the Coco Islands.
The earthquake was the third largest globally since 1900.
Affected Countries: Indonesia, India, Bangladesh, Malaysia, the Maldives, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and others faced significant damage.
Approximately 227,000 people lost their lives, and 1.7 million were displaced.
Prior tsunamis in the region were smaller in scale, such as those caused by an 1881 earthquake near Car Nicobar and the 1883 Krakatoa explosion.

About Tsunami:

Tsunami (a Japanese word that means “harbour wave”) is a series of giant ocean waves caused by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions under the ocean.
When an earthquake occurs under the ocean, a large chunk of the ocean floor can suddenly move upward or downward, leading to a sudden displacement of a large volume of water, thereby causing tsunami waves.
Similarly, the lava flowing out of the volcano displaces the water around it and that water can become a large wave.
Other factors that can cause tsunamis are- landslides, meteorites and asteroid impacts.

Characteristics:

The formation of a tsunami can depend on a host of factors, including the shape of the ocean floor, and the earthquake’s distance and direction.
Tsunami waves can be hundreds of feet tall and can travel as fast as jet planes over deep waters while slowing down when reaching shallow waters.
Not all earthquakes or volcanic eruptions lead to tsunamis.
Tsunamis generated in the open ocean appear to be only small waves.
Tsunami waves become dangerous only when they get close to the coast.
An increase in wave amplitude results in “shoaling” when waves, including tsunamis, run from deep to shallow water. This is significant in coastal regions. This phenomenon occurs because of the force from the seabed as it becomes shallower. This slows down the wave: the shallower the water, the slower the wave.

Tsunami Warning Systems

Indian Tsunami Early Warning Centre (ITEWC): Established in 2007, it operates under the Ministry of Earth Sciences at INCOIS, Hyderabad.
Monitors through seismological stations, bottom pressure recorders, and tidal stations.
Issues tsunami alerts within 10 minutes of detecting potential earthquakes.
India became the fifth country to develop advanced tsunami warning capabilities, joining the U.S., Japan, Chile, and Australia.

Global Vulnerabilities:

Makran Coast: Potentially threatens India’s west coast, including Mumbai.
Myanmar Coast: Poses risks to Northern Indian Ocean regions.
Kalpakkam Case Study: The 2004 tsunami caused a shutdown at the Kalpakkam nuclear plant, which resumed operations without releasing radioactive material.
Lessons from Fukushima (2011): Reinforced the need for stringent safety protocols, as radiation leaks can have far-reaching consequences.