Daily Prelims Notes 10 October 2024

Daily Prelims Notes

10 October 2024

Table Of Contents

1. CCS clears deals for MQ-9B drones and submarines
2. Australia and New Zealand brace for looming bird flu threat
3. ASEAN summit calls for an end to violence in Myanmar
4. Global wildlife numbers have declined 73% since 1970, says WWF
5. Govt okays universal supply of fortified rice till December 2028; concerns regarding indiscriminate supply without health warnings remain
6. RBI Holds Rate at 6.5% and Shifts Policy Stance to ‘Neutral’
7. RBI Proposes New Repository to Address Climate Risk Data Gaps
8. Carbon-Trapping Sedimentary Rock from Slag: A New Hope for Carbon Sequestration
9. Breakthrough in Protein Design and Structure Prediction Wins 2024 Nobel Prize in Chemistry

1. CCS clears deals for MQ-9B drones and submarines

Sub : Sci

Sec: Defence

Context:

• The Cabinet Committee on Security (CSS) approved two high-profile deals for the purchase of 31 MQ-9B High Altitude Long Endurance Unmanned Aerial Vehicles from General Atomics of the U.S. and indigenous construction of two nuclear attack submarines.
• The purchase of 31 MQ-9B drones include 15 Sea Guardians for the Indian Navy and 16 Sky Guardians, 8 each for the navy and air force.
• Approval from CCS is the final step of the procurement deal.
• As part of the deal, General Atomics is scheduled to establish a Global Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul (MRO) facility in India.

Significance:

• Both MQ-9B drones and nuclear submarines are ‘hunter-killer’ weapon platforms because they can quietly gather intelligence, track enemy targets at extended ranges and then destroy them if required.

About MQ-9B Predator Drones:

• The MQ-9B drone is a variant of the MQ-9 “Reaper”, an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) capable of remotely controlled or autonomous flight operations.
• These are high-altitude long-endurance drones armed with strike missiles which can take out enemy targets with high accuracy.
• It was developed by General Atomics Aeronautical Systems (GA-ASI),primarily for the United States Air Force (USAF).
• The MQ-9B has two variants – Sky Guardian and Sea Guardian. The Indian Navy has been operating the MQ-9B Sea Guardian since 2020.

Features of MQ-9B:

• It can carry up to 5,670 kg and has a fuel capacity of 2,721 kg.
• The drone can operate at over 40,000 feet.
• The Predator also has a maximum endurance of 40 hours, making it useful for long-hour surveillance.
• It can support land, maritime surveillance, anti-submarine warfare, anti-surface warfare, strike, electronic warfare and expeditionary roles.
• It is also capable of automatic take-offs and landings.

Nuclear Submarine Project (SSN Project):

• The SSN project is a part of larger Project 75-Alpha (75-A) of the Indian Navy to procure new nuclear-powered attack submarines, which started in 2015.
• India has already indigenously manufactured nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines (SSBN) and the SSN project will be a follow-on to that.
• India’s second SSBN, INS Arighaat, was commissioned into service recently, joining INS Arihant, which was commissioned into service in 2016.
• SSNs provide unlimited endurance, with operational limits only determined by crew endurance.
• India has leased two SSNs from Russia; a third is expected to be operational in 2-3 years.

About Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS):

• The Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) is a key decision-making body of the Indian government in matters of national security and defence.
• It is headed by the Prime Minister.
• Members:
  • Prime Minister
  • Minister of Defence
  • Minister of Home Affairs
  • Minister of Finance
  • Minister of External Affairs

2. Australia and New Zealand brace for looming bird flu threat

Sub: Sci

Sec: Health

Context:

• Australia and New Zealand are on high alert for the potential arrival of a destructive strain of H5N1 avian influenza, known as clade 2.3.4.4b, which has devastated bird and mammal populations globally since its emergence in 2020.
• To prepare for the impending threat, both countries have intensified biosecurity measures.

About clade 2.3.4.4b:

• Clade 2.3.4.4b is a highly contagious variant of H5N1 virus.
• This strain has resulted in the deaths of hundreds of millions of birds and tens of thousands of mammals, particularly in Asia, Europe, and Africa.
• The virus has recently reached Indonesia and Antarctica, increasing the threat level for Oceania, which remains the last region free from this avian influenza strain.

Increased risk during Spring:

• The risk of the virus entering Australia is particularly pronounced during the spring months in Southern Hemisphere, from September to November, when migratory shore birds are active.

Avian Influenza or Bird Flu:

• Avian influenza (AI) is a highly contagious viral disease affecting several species of food-producing birds (chickens, turkeys, quails, guinea fowl, etc.), as well as pet birds and wild birds.
• Occasionally mammals, including humans, may contract avian influenza.
• H5N1 is a subtype of the avian influenza virus.

Mode of transmission:

• Avian influenza is most often spread by contact between infected and healthy birds, though can also be spread indirectly through contaminated equipment.
• The virus is found in secretions from the nostrils, mouth, and eyes of infected birds as well as their droppings.

3. ASEAN summit calls for an end to violence in Myanmar

Sub: IR

Sec: Int Grouping

Context:

• The ASEAN summit held in Vientiane addressed ongoing violence and instability in Myanmar following the military coup in February 2021.
• Leaders urged an immediate cessation of violence and highlighted the importance of dialogue among all parties involved.

Five-Point Consensus:

• ASEAN reaffirmed its commitment to the five-point consensus established in April 2021.
• The junta had previously agreed to a five-point plan with ASEAN to restore peace but has largely ignored it and continued military action.
  • Immediate cessation of violence.
  • Dialogue among stakeholders.
  • Appointment of a special ASEAN envoy.
  • Humanitarian aid.
  • A timeline for the implementation of these measures.

About ASEAN:

• ASEAN is a regional organization established in 1967 to promote political and social stability among the Asia-Pacific’s post-colonial states.
• Established with the signing of the Bangkok Declaration.
• Secretariat: Jakarta
• Members: Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, Cambodia.

4. Global wildlife numbers have declined 73% since 1970, says WWF

Sub : Env

Sec: Biodiversity

Context:

• The World Wide Fund (WWF) for Nature’s Living Planet Report (LPR) 2024 highlights a 73% decline in monitored wildlife populations from 1970 to 2020, up from a 69% decline in the 2022 edition.
• The report emphasises the need for significant “collective effort” over the next five years to address the dual crises of climate change and biodiversity loss.

Details:

• Living Planet Index (LPI), provided by the Zoological Society of London (ZSL), tracks 35,000 population trends across 5,495 species from 1970-2020:
  • Freshwater ecosystems show the steepest decline at 85%.
  • Terrestrial ecosystems face a 69% decline.
  • Marine ecosystems have a 56% decline.
• LPI in 2024 and 2022 reports are not directly comparable due to changes in datasets (265 additional species, 3,015 more populations added in 2024).
• Wildlife declines signal potential extinction risks and vulnerability of ecosystems to tipping points, which could lead to irreversible changes.

Key Threats to Wildlife:

• Habitat loss and degradation, driven by unsustainable farming and food consumption.
• Over-exploitation, invasive species, and diseases.
• Pollution, especially in Asia and the Pacific, which has seen a 60% decline in wildlife populations.

India’s Wildlife Recovery:

• While many populations have declined, India has seen some success due to government initiatives, habitat management, and community engagement.
• India hosts the largest wild tiger population, with a minimum of 3,682 tigers recorded in 2022, up from 2,967 in 2018.
• The Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change (MoEF&CC) recently launched the first Snow Leopard Population Assessment in India (SPAI), which systematically evaluated 70% of their potential range.
• This assessment estimated the snow leopard population at 718.

Vulture Decline in India:

• Three species — white-rumped vulture, Indian vulture, and slender-billed vulture — show significant declines (67%, 48%, and 89%, respectively, since 2002).
• Conservation efforts are urgently needed to protect these scavengers and maintain ecological balance.

Global Perspective:

• Nature is under severe stress due to linked crises of biodiversity loss and climate change, threatening critical ecosystems like the Amazon rainforest and coral reefs.
• Countries have pledged to halt nature loss (Global Biodiversity Framework), limit global warming to 1.5°C (Paris Agreement), and eradicate poverty (UN Sustainable Development Goals).
• However, current national actions are insufficient to meet 2030 targets and avoid catastrophic tipping points.

About WWF:

• WWF is an independent conservation organization, with over 30 million supporters and a global network active in over 100 countries.
• WWF’s mission is to stop the degradation of the Earth’s natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature, by conserving the world’s biological diversity, ensuring that the use of renewable natural resources is sustainable, and promoting the reduction of pollution and wasteful consumption.

About ZSL:

• Founded in 1826, ZSL is an international conservation charity, driven by science, working to restore wildlife in the UK and around the world; by protecting critical species, restoring ecosystems, helping people and wildlife live together and inspiring support for nature.
• Through our leading conservation zoos, London and Whipsnade, we bring people closer to nature and use our expertise to protect wildlife today, while inspiring a lifelong love of animals in the conservationists of tomorrow.

5. Govt okays universal supply of fortified rice till December 2028; concerns regarding indiscriminate supply without health warnings remain

Sub : Sci

Sec: Health

Context:

• The Centre has approved the continuation of universal fortified rice distribution under all Union government schemes, including Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana (PMGKAY), from July 2024 to December 2028.
• Rice fortification will remain fully funded by the central government as part of PMGKAY.

What is Rice Fortification?

• Fortification is the process of adding essential micronutrients to food (rice, in this case) to improve its nutritional quality.
• Nutrients added to rice include iron, folic acid, vitamins B-12, B-1, B-2, B-3, B-6, zinc, and vitamin A.

Why Rice Fortification?

• India is the second-largest producer and consumer of rice, accounting for 20% of global production.
• A third of the Indian population depends on rice for sustenance.
• Malnutrition rates in India are high, with half of the women anaemic and one-third of children stunted.
• Fortifying rice is seen as a measure to combat this issue, especially in poor communities where rice consumption is high (6.8 kg per capita per month).

Concerns Over Fortification:

• Health Risks:
  • Fortified rice may pose health risks to people with blood disorders like thalassemia and sickle cell disease, as consuming excess iron can cause complications such as organ failure.
  • Both the Food Safety and Standards (Fortification of Foods) Regulation, 2018 and global research highlight the need for medical supervision for such patients.
  • Fortified products carry warnings for individuals with these conditions, but the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) has proposed removing these warning labels, sparking concern.
• Supreme Court Intervention:
  • In October 2023, the Supreme Court directed the Centre to address concerns about the indiscriminate distribution of iron-fortified rice to those suffering from thalassemia and sickle cell disease.

Is Fortification Necessary?

• Evidence suggests iron deficiency is not universal and does not require a mandatory, widespread solution.
• Critics argue that fortification is not the only solution and stress the need for dietary diversification. The National Institute of Nutrition (NIN) recommends that less than 40% of daily calories should come from cereals, including rice.

Alternative Solutions:

• There is a call for long-term, sustainable solutions focused on dietary diversity rather than a one-size-fits-all approach like fortification.
• Community involvement and local dietary diversification are emphasized as better solutions to address malnutrition.

Source: DTE

6. RBI Holds Rate at 6.5% and Shifts Policy Stance to ‘Neutral’

Sub : Eco

Sec: Monetary Policy

RBI Maintains Benchmark Rate:

• The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has held the benchmark interest rate at 6.5% for the 10th consecutive monetary policy review since April 2023.
• This decision indicates stability in monetary policy while opening the possibility for a rate cut in the near future.
• Shift to ‘Neutral’ Stance:
  • The Monetary Policy Committee (MPC), after a three-day meeting starting October 7, unanimously shifted its policy stance from ‘withdrawal of accommodation’ to ‘neutral’.
  • Five out of six members voted to maintain the interest rates, while the shift to a neutral stance was unanimous.
  • This shift signals that the RBI is ready to respond flexibly to future changes in economic conditions, particularly inflation and growth.
• Inflation and Growth:
  • Inflation and growth parameters are currently well-balanced, according to the MPC.
  • Retail inflation was close to the RBI’s target of 4% in July and August.
  • Governor Shaktikanta Das mentioned that inflation is expected to reverse in September and may remain elevated due to adverse base effects.
  • The RBI’s GDP growth projection remains at 7.2%, and inflation is estimated at 4.5% for 2024-25. However, second-quarter inflation is revised to 4.1%, with a projection of 4.8% for the October-December quarter.
• Inflation Management:
  • Das used an analogy, stating that “the inflation horse has been brought to the stable,” emphasizing the importance of controlling inflation and preventing it from rising again.
  • He stressed the need to keep inflation under control and monitor evolving conditions to confirm disinflationary impulses.
• Key Risks:
  • The MPC noted unanticipated weather events and geopolitical conflicts as major risks that could push inflation upward.
  • The committee remains watchful of the evolving inflation outlook in the coming months.

By maintaining the status quo on rates but moving to a neutral stance, the RBI is signaling a balanced approach toward fostering sustainable growth while keeping inflation within control.

Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) – Overview:

The Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) is a statutory body established to determine India’s benchmark interest rates, particularly the repo rate, to control inflation and stabilize the economy. It was created as part of a larger framework to introduce inflation-targeting monetary policy.

Key Details:

• Constitution:
  • The MPC was constituted under Section 45ZB of the RBI Act, 1934, amended by the Finance Act, 2016.
  • The MPC was established after a Memorandum of Understanding between the Government of India and the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).
• Function:
  • The MPC is responsible for fixing the benchmark policy rate (repo rate) to control inflation and ensure price stability.
  • The inflation target is set by the Government of India in consultation with the RBI.
• Composition:
• The MPC consists of 6 members:
  • RBI Governor (Chairperson).
  • RBI Deputy Governor in charge of monetary policy.
  • One member nominated by the RBI Board.
  • Three members nominated by the Government of India.
  • The external members nominated by the government serve for a period of four years.
  • The decisions are made based on a majority vote, with each member having one vote. In case of a tie, the RBI Governor holds a casting vote.
• Quorum:
  • The quorum for the MPC’s meeting is four members, and one of them must be either the Governor or the Deputy Governor of the RBI.
• Binding Decisions:
  • The decisions made by the MPC are binding on the RBI.
  • RBI’s Monetary Policy Department (MPD) assists the MPC by providing technical analysis and policy advice.
• Replacement of the Technical Advisory Committee:
  • The MPC replaced the earlier Technical Advisory Committee (TAC), where the RBI Governor had discretion to seek the opinion of a group of advisors before making a monetary policy decision. The MPC formalized and institutionalized this process by granting decision-making authority to the Committee.

The MPC plays a crucial role in shaping India’s monetary policy, contributing to economic stability, influencing borrowing costs, and maintaining price stability, which impacts investments, savings, and consumption in the economy.

Summary of Policy Stances

7. RBI Proposes New Repository to Address Climate Risk Data Gaps

Sub : Eco

Sec: Monetary Policy

• Introduction of RB-CRIS:
  • The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has proposed a new data repository called the Reserve Bank – Climate Risk Information System (RB-CRIS).
  • The repository aims to bridge the existing gaps in climate-related data for financial and other regulated entities.

RBI – Climate Risk Information Repository (RB-CRIS)

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is launching the Climate Risk Information System (RB-CRIS) to enhance the resilience of the financial system against climate change risks. This system will address the increasing impact of climate-related risks on financial stability and provide a standardized data repository.

Key Features of RB-CRIS: 

• Purpose:
  • RB-CRIS will help regulated entities conduct climate risk assessments by providing high-quality, standardized climate data.
  • It aims to address current data gaps that are often fragmented and lack granularity necessary for comprehensive assessments.
• Two-Part Structure:
  • Public Web Directory: This will list various climate data sources and be accessible to the public via the RBI’s website.
  • Secure Data Portal: This will house processed climate-related datasets in standardized formats. Access will be restricted to regulated entities to improve their climate risk assessments.
• Phased Launch:
  • The rollout will begin with the web-based directory, followed by a gradual introduction of the data portal for regulated entities to ensure smooth adaptation.
• Disclosure Framework:
  • On February 28, 2024, the RBI introduced draft guidelines for a ‘Disclosure Framework on Climate-Related Financial Risks’, requiring regulated entities to disclose climate-related risks across four areas:
• Governance
• Strategy
• Risk Management
• Metrics and Targets
  • The framework helps inform stakeholders (regulators, investors, customers) about climate risks and strategies to manage them.
• Staggered Adoption:
  • The RBI has given regulated entities additional time to establish internal policies and mechanisms for reporting climate-related disclosures.
  • The disclosure requirements vary based on the size and complexity of the entities, with basic disclosures mandatory for all, while enhanced disclosures remain voluntary for smaller entities.

This initiative aims to make climate risk data more accessible and actionable for financial entities, contributing to stronger climate resilience within India’s financial system.

8. Carbon-Trapping Sedimentary Rock from Slag: A New Hope for Carbon Sequestration

Sub : Geo

Sec: Geomorphology

Why in News

Recent studies have highlighted the formation of a new type of sedimentary rock from coastal slag deposits, which is capable of capturing carbon dioxide through a process called mineral carbonation. This discovery is crucial as it opens up new possibilities for mitigating industrial carbon emissions.

About Coastal Slag:

Slag is a by-product of the steelmaking process, primarily consisting of metal oxides and silicon dioxide.

Generated by industrial activities, especially in iron and steel industries, and deposited in coastal regions.

Contains various minerals like calcium silicate (larnite), metal oxides, and calcite, making it chemically stable.

Can neutralize soil acidity but may release toxic metals (e.g., chromium, vanadium) into the environment when weathered.

New Type of Sedimentary Rock from Coastal Slag: Created through the process of lithification, where slag hardens over time, turning into sedimentary rock.

Carbon Sequestration: The rock captures carbon dioxide through mineral carbonation, where CO₂ reacts with calcium in the slag to form calcite (CaCO₃).

Dual Lithification Mechanisms:

Calcite Cement Precipitation: Occurs on the surface of slag deposits, capturing CO₂ from the atmosphere.

Calcium-Silicate-Hydrate (CSH) Precipitation: Takes place in intertidal zones, forming CSH minerals in seawater-exposed areas.

Applications of Slag Lithification

Carbon Sequestration Potential: The calcite cement mechanism effectively captures CO₂ from the atmosphere without additional processing, offering a sustainable solution for carbon sequestration. The lithification of slag stores greenhouse gases like CO₂. Projections indicate a 10.5% rise in global slag production by 2031, emphasizing the need for carbon capture strategies in the steel industry.

Environmental Benefits: The formation of CSH minerals could reduce the release of harmful metals like vanadium and chromium into the environment.

Resource Recovery: Understanding slag lithification may help recover valuable materials and increase recycling in steelmaking.

Coastal Protection: Hardened slag could be repurposed for coastal erosion prevention by serving as a barrier against waves and tides.

What is Mineral Carbonation:

Mineral carbonation is a natural process in which carbon dioxide (CO₂) reacts with minerals, particularly those containing calcium, magnesium, or iron, to form stable carbonate minerals like calcite (CaCO₃), magnesite (MgCO₃), or siderite (FeCO₃).

Natural Process: Occurs over long geological timescales, contributing to the Earth’s carbon cycle by removing CO₂ from the atmosphere.

Artificial Mineral Carbonation: Scientists are replicating this process to sequester carbon as a method of combating climate change, often using industrial by-products like slag.

Carbon-13 Isotope Analysis: aids in the understanding of carbon dynamics during carbonation.

About Carbon sequestration:

Carbon sequestration refers to the process of capturing and storing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and preventing it from being released back into the atmosphere. It plays a crucial role in mitigating climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and stabilizing the carbon cycle.

Carbon sequestration is the long-term storage of carbon in various reservoirs, such as forests, soil, oceans, and geological formations, to remove CO2 from the atmosphere.

Natural ecosystems, such as forests, wetlands, and oceans, act as important carbon sinks by absorbing and storing carbon through processes like photosynthesis and biological activity. Preserving and restoring these ecosystems is crucial for enhancing carbon sequestration.

Planting new forests (afforestation) or restoring degraded forests (reforestation) can significantly increase carbon sequestration. Trees absorb CO2 through photosynthesis, storing carbon in their biomass and in the soil.

Blue carbon refers to the carbon stored in coastal and marine ecosystems, such as mangroves, seagrasses, and salt marshes. Protecting and restoring these habitats is important for preserving their carbon sequestration capacity.

Carbon capture and storage technologies involve capturing CO2 emissions from power plants, industrial facilities, and other sources, and then storing it in underground geological formations, such as depleted oil and gas reservoirs or saline aquifers.

Direct air capture is a technology that directly removes CO2 from the atmosphere using specialized machines. The captured CO2 can be stored underground or used for various purposes, such as enhanced oil recovery or the production of synthetic fuels.

9. Breakthrough in Protein Design and Structure Prediction Wins 2024 Nobel Prize in Chemistry

Sub : Sci

Sec: Chemistry

Why in News

The 2024 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded jointly to David Baker, Demis Hassabis, and John Jumper for their ground breaking contributions in computational protein design and structure prediction. The award highlights advancements in the fields of protein research that have far-reaching implications for healthcare, pharmaceuticals, and molecular biology. The winners were announced by the Swedish Academy of Royal Sciences.

Historical Background:

In 1962, John Kendrew and Max Perutz won the Nobel Prize for discovering the first 3D models of hemoglobin and myoglobin through X-ray crystallography.

In 1972, Christian Anfinsen demonstrated that the 3D structure of a protein is dictated by its amino acid sequence.

Scientists discovered that proteins do not randomly try different shapes before settling on their final form. Instead, proteins seem to “know” their final shape and fold rapidly to acquire it. This phenomenon is known as the protein-folding problem.

By the late 2010s, scientists had mapped the structures of around 1.7 lakh proteins, a fraction of the estimated 200 million proteins found in nature. This landscape changed dramatically around 2018 with the advent of advanced computational tools.

What is AlphaFold?

AlphaFold is a revolutionary tool that predicts the 3D structure of proteins, developed by DeepMind, co-founded by Demis Hassabis in 2010 and acquired by Google in 2014.

AlphaFold 1 (2018): The original model could predict the structure of almost any protein based on known structures.

AlphaFold 2 (2020): Achieved accuracy comparable to X-ray crystallography in predicting protein structures.

AlphaFold 3 (2024): Led by John Jumper, this version expanded its capabilities to predict interactions between proteins and between proteins and other molecules.

AlphaFold is an AI-based protein structure prediction tool. It is based on a computer system called deep neural network. Inspired by the human brain, neural networks use a large amount of input data and provides the desired output exactly like how a human brain would.

The real work is done by the black box between the input and the output layers, called the hidden networks.

AlphaFold is fed with protein sequences as input. When protein sequences enter through one end, the predicted three-dimensional structures come out through the other. It is like a magician pulling a rabbit out of a hat.

How does AlphaFold work?

AlphaFold is an AI-based protein structure prediction tool. It used processes based on “training, learning, retraining and relearning” to predict the structures of the entire 214 million unique protein sequences deposited in the Universal Protein Resource (UniProt) database.

About Proteins: Proteins are large, complex molecules made of amino acids that perform vital biological functions.

Proteins are composed of one or more long chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.

Proteins have four levels of structure—primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary—dictating their shape and function.

Proteins are involved in structural support, catalyzing reactions (enzymes), transport, immune defense, and cellular signaling.

Common types include enzymes, antibodies, structural proteins (e.g., collagen), and transport proteins (e.g., hemoglobin).

Proper folding into a specific 3D shape is crucial for their functionality; misfolding can cause diseases.

Proteins are synthesized in cells by ribosomes through a process called translation, using mRNA as a template.

Proteins are broken down into amino acids via proteolysis, allowing the body to recycle amino acids.

Proteins are involved in every cellular process, from DNA replication to cell structure maintenance.

About Amino Acids:

Amino acids are the basic units that make up proteins. There are 20 standard amino acids used to build proteins in humans and most organisms.

Each amino acid consists of an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a unique side chain (R-group).

Out of the 20, 9 are essential and must be obtained through diet. The remaining 11 amino acids can be synthesized by the body.

Amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds to form proteins. Amino acids play roles in metabolism, enzyme function, and cell signalling.

Amino acids are encoded by the DNA sequence via codons in the genetic code. Amino acids are crucial for growth, repair, and maintaining body functions.