Daily Prelims Notes 10 September 2024

September 10, 2024
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Category: DPN

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Daily Prelims Notes

10 September 2024

Table Of Contents

1. GST Council’s Review of Tax on Health and Life Insurance Covers

Sub: Eco

Sec: Fiscal Policy

Formation of a Group of Ministers (GoM):
- A new GoM has been formed to review the 18% GST on health and life insurance premiums.
- The GoM has a 50-day deadline to submit its recommendations by the end of October 2024.
- The GST Council, chaired by Union Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman, will take a decision based on the review in its meeting in November.
Key Considerations for Review:
- The GoM will assess whether the GST rate should be reduced or scrapped altogether for insurance premiums.
- It will also determine who should be exempted from the tax, if applicable.
- The treatment of group insurance policies will also be examined.
Extension of GST Compensation Cess:
- A new ministerial group will deliberate the future of the GST Compensation Cess, originally levied till July 2022.
- The cess was extended until March 2026 to repay borrowings raised during the COVID-19 pandemic to compensate states.
- The borrowings are expected to be repaid by 2025 or January 2026. The GoM will assess if the cess should continue in a different form after repayment.
GST Rate Changes:
- The GST rate on three cancer drugs – Trastuzumab Deruxtecan, Osimertinib, and Durvalumab – has been reduced from 12% to 5%.
- The GST rate on car seat covers has been increased from 18% to 28% to align with the rate on motorcycle seats.
- The GST on certain extruded savory snacks has been reduced from 18% to 12%.
Real Estate Valuation:
- The Council asked a GoM to examine the valuation of land costs in real estate projects, as the cost of land in a project can vary.
- Currently, one-third of the value of construction services is carved out of the taxable value to account for land costs. The GoM will review this approach.
Exemption for Research Funds:
- The GST Council exempted State-affiliated universities and those established under State or Central laws from paying GST on research funds.
- The exemption applies to research funds from both the public and private sectors.
- This decision addresses 39,000 crore in tax notices served to universities due to interpretation issues over quid pro quo involved in the funds.
- The exemption is not retrospective, but existing cases will be resolved on an “as is where is” basis.
Other Important Developments:
- The GoM on real estate has been tasked with reviewing the impact of land costs on construction services taxation.

GST Council

The GST Council is the apex decision-making body responsible for all matters related to Goods and Services Tax (GST).
Chaired by the Union Finance Minister, it includes State Finance Ministers from all Indian states and Union Territories.

Functions:

The council reviews GST rates on goods and services, proposes tax law changes, and ensures uniformity in tax policies across India.
It plays a central role in determining tax slabs, exemptions, and procedural changes to improve tax administration.

GST Compensation Cess:

The GST Compensation Cess is a levy on certain goods, like automobiles and demerit goods (tobacco, soft drinks), to compensate states for any revenue loss after the implementation of GST.

Duration and Extension:

Originally intended to be levied till July 2022 for the first five years of GST, the cess was extended until March 2026 due to the revenue shortfall caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. The extended period is meant to repay borrowings taken to compensate states.

2. On uncommon cyclones in the Arabian Sea

Sub: Geo

Sec: Climatology

Cyclone Asna:

Asna is a rare cyclone that formed in August 2023, making it the first north Indian Ocean cyclone in August since 1981. What made Asna unique was its origin as a land-born depression that transitioned into a cyclone after moving over the warm Arabian Sea.
Formation of Cyclone Asna:
- Typically, low-pressure systems form over the Bay of Bengal, delivering around 60% of the monsoon’s rainfall as they cross India. However, Asna started as a powerful land depression over western India, fueled by excess soil moisture from earlier heavy rains. As it neared the Arabian Sea, warm ocean waters gave it additional energy, transforming it into a full-fledged cyclone.
- The development of Asna was rare, with the warming Arabian Sea, influenced by shifts in wind patterns and rapid warming in West Asia, playing a crucial role. Eventually, dry desert air caused the cyclone to weaken and dissipate over the ocean.
Asna was part of a series of unusual weather patterns during 2023-2024, linked to global warming, El Niño, and possibly underwater volcanic eruptions.

Cyclones in the North Indian Ocean:

The north Indian Ocean plays a vital role in supporting the summer monsoon by being a major moisture source, requiring significant evaporation from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.
Warm sea temperatures drive this evaporation. Despite being warm tropical waters, the north Indian Ocean has the lowest cyclone activity among the world’s oceans.
A unique combination of factors in this region either promotes or suppresses cyclone formation, affecting the timing, number, and intensity of cyclones, and how they respond to global warming.

What Makes the Indian Ocean Unique?

Monsoonal Circulation: North of the equator, seasonal winds reverse dramatically, driving unique weather patterns.
Oceanic Tunnels:
- Pacific Tunnel: Brings warm water in the upper 500 meters of the Indian Ocean.
- Southern Ocean Tunnel: Transfers cooler water below 1 km depth from the Southern Ocean.
Seasonal Characteristics:
- Pre-monsoon: The Arabian Sea warms rapidly, while the Bay of Bengal stays relatively warmer and continues to heat up.
- Monsoon Onset: By mid-May, a low-pressure trough forms over the Bay of Bengal, signalling the onset of the monsoon in Kerala.
- Post-monsoon: The northeast monsoon brings significant rainfall to several Indian states.
Cyclogenesis (Cyclone Formation): Wind patterns and sea surface temperatures influence cyclone development, creating a stark contrast between the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. These factors affect cyclone formation year-round.

Role of Climate Change:

Climate change is amplifying the warming of the Indian Ocean, driven by heat influx from the Pacific and Southern Oceans, and changes in winds and humidity. This rapid warming impacts global ocean processes, influencing the frequency of cyclones and their intensity. The Indian Ocean acts as a hub for warming effects, leading to increased cyclone formation and stronger responses to global warming.

Cyclones in the north Indian Ocean, especially in the Arabian Sea, are unique for several reasons:

Monsoonal Effects: During the monsoon, strong southwesterly winds mix cold subsurface waters with warmer surface waters, thus cooling the Arabian Sea. In contrast, the Bay of Bengal sees strong convective activity, which generates low-pressure systems, though these rarely develop into full cyclones.
Vertical Wind Shear: Monsoon winds vary in strength and direction between the surface and mid-atmosphere. This variation, called vertical shear, disrupts the formation of cyclones by stripping away their energy.
- As a result, the cyclone season over the north Indian Ocean is split into two periods: pre-monsoon and post-monsoon. In contrast, other regions typically have one cyclone season each year.
Cyclogenesis: While the warm ocean, heat content, and atmospheric conditions generally support cyclone formation, the Arabian Sea experiences less convective activity before the monsoon, making cyclogenesis less likely. After the monsoon, the northeast winds and dry continental air cool the Arabian Sea, further reducing cyclone activity.
Cyclone Distribution: Cyclones are less frequent in the Arabian Sea, with roughly half the number of cyclones compared to the Bay of Bengal during both pre- and post-monsoon seasons. The cooler temperatures, strong wind shear, and reduced convective activity make the Arabian Sea less favourable for cyclone formation.
Recent Trends: Despite an increase in cyclone activity around 2010, the Arabian Sea has been unusually calm in recent years.

Source: TH

3. New climate finance goal: Technical dialogue commences in Azerbaijan, heated debates expected

Sub: Env

Sec: Int conventions

Climate Finance Talks in Baku: Shaping the Future of Global Climate Funding:

From September 9-12, 2024, parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) are meeting in Baku, Azerbaijan, to discuss a critical issue: the New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG) on climate finance.
This goal will succeed the $100 billion per year commitment from developed to developing countries.
These sessions will build on discussions held at the mid-year climate conference in Bonn, Germany, in June 2024.
Key Challenges: One of the most contentious issues is the expansion of the contributor base.

Technical Discussions: Defining the Goal:

The technical talks are focused on various aspects of the NCQG, including:

The total amount of climate finance.
How contributions should be calculated (e.g., as absolute amounts or as a percentage of gross national income).
Whether the list of contributors should expand.
Timelines for distributing the funds.

New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG):

Purpose and Background: The NCQG is intended to set a new global climate finance target for developed countries to support developing nations in their climate action efforts. It’s meant to succeed and expand upon the previous goal of mobilizing $100 billion annually by 2020, which was established at the 2009 Copenhagen Climate Conference.
Key Features:

Quantified Goal: The NCQG aims to establish a specific, measurable target for climate finance.
Collective Effort: It represents a joint commitment from developed countries, rather than individual national pledges.
Post-2025 Framework: The NCQG is set to come into effect after 2025, building on the previous $100 billion goal.
Comprehensive Scope: It’s expected to cover various aspects of climate finance, including mitigation, adaptation, and addressing loss and damage.

Negotiation Process: The NCQG is being discussed and negotiated through a series of technical expert dialogues and high-level ministerial meetings under the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) process.
Challenges: Determining the NCQG involves complex negotiations around the scale of funding needed, sources of finance, and mechanisms for delivery and transparency.
Importance: The NCQG is crucial for supporting developing countries in their climate action efforts and is seen as a key element in maintaining trust and cooperation in global climate negotiations.

COP29 of UNFCCC:

Date: Scheduled for November 11-24, 2024
Location: Baku, Azerbaijan
It follows COP28 held in Dubai, UAE, in 2023, which saw significant discussions on the phase-out of fossil fuels and the operationalization of the loss and damage fund.

Key Focus Areas of COP29:

Climate Finance:
- Discussions on the New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG) for climate finance
- Review of progress on the $100 billion annual climate finance goal
Global Stocktake:
- Follow-up on the outcomes of the first Global Stocktake concluded at COP28
- Discussions on enhancing climate action based on these findings
Mitigation:
- Further negotiations on reducing greenhouse gas emissions
- Assessing progress on nationally determined contributions (NDCs)
Adaptation:
- Strengthening resilience and adaptive capacity in vulnerable countries
Loss and Damage:
- Operationalization of the loss and damage fund established at COP27
Implementation of Paris Agreement:
- Continued work on implementing various aspects of the Paris Agreement

Source: DTE

4. Mpox Vaccination in Africa: Addressing the Global Health Challenge

Sub: Sci

Sec: Health

Why this is in News

The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), the epicentre of the global mpox outbreak, has received its first batch of vaccines, nearly a month after the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the infection a global health emergency. The delay in vaccine delivery and the shortage of vaccines in Africa have raised concerns, particularly as mpox continues to spread.

Background of Mpox Outbreak

Global Impact: Since January 1, 2022, mpox cases have been reported in 121 countries, including 20 WHO member-states across Africa. As of September 5, 2024, 1,03,048 laboratory-confirmed cases and 229 deaths have been reported worldwide. India confirmed its first mpox case, which was travel-related, in September 2024. Despite the surge in cases, vaccines have been in limited supply across Africa.

What is Mpox (monkeypox)?

Mpox is a viral zoonotic disease caused by the monkeypox virus which was first recorded in 1970 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).

The emergence of mpox in the DRC is caused by a new clade of the virus, clade Ib, which emerged late last year and is characterized by severe disease and higher mortality.

Broadly, the monkeypox virus has two clades.

Clade I has been present in the DRC for several years causing sporadic outbreaks, while clade II (previously the West African clade) and specifically IIb emerged during the global mpox outbreak that attracted global attention in 2022.

Clade I:

Severity: Clade I is considered the more severe and deadlier variant.

Transmission: This clade is typically transmitted from animals to humans, which is known as zoonotic transmission.

Geographical Distribution: Historically, Clade I have been more common in Central Africa, where human-to-animal interaction is higher.

Clade II:

Subdivisions: Clade II is further divided into Clade IIa and Clade IIb.

Clade IIb is the newer variant responsible for the recent global outbreak.

Transmission: This clade is more transmissible between humans, and it has been linked to human-to-human transmission, including through close contact and sexual activity.

Affected Groups: Clade IIb has affected more women and children in Africa and is spreading faster than previous variants.

Vaccines for Mpox

Types of Vaccines Available: Currently, three vaccines are being used for mpox, all derived from the vaccinia virus, which was the basis for the smallpox vaccine.

Modified Vaccinia Ankara (MVA): Manufactured by Bavarian Nordic (Denmark), it has received approval from both the US FDA and the European Medicines Agency (EMA). This vaccine has been supplied to DRC.
LC16m8: Produced by KM Biologics (Japan), it is approved only by Japan’s regulatory authority.
ACAM2000: Developed by Emergent BioSolutions (USA), it was approved by the FDA in 2024.

New Developments: A vaccine by BioNTech (Germany) is under early clinical trials. Serum Institute of India (SII) is also working on developing an mpox vaccine, expected to yield results within a year

Challenges in Vaccine Distribution in Africa

Cost Barrier: The high cost of available mpox vaccines ($50–$75 per dose) has made it difficult for African countries to procure them.

Regulatory Delays: Gavi and UNICEF cannot procure vaccines until the WHO provides Emergency Use Listing or full approval.

GAVI: Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization

GAVI is a global health partnership established in 2000 to improve access to vaccines in low-income countries. Headquartered in Geneva, it aims to ensure equal vaccine access, especially for children in the poorest nations.

Foster collaboration among governments, international organizations (WHO, UNICEF, World Bank), and the private sector.

India’s Role: Began receiving GAVI support in 2002 for its immunization programs. India is the largest vaccine supplier to GAVI.

Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)

Location: Central Africa, bordered by 9 countries.

Capital: Kinshasa.

Natural Resources: Rich in minerals like cobalt, copper, and diamonds. DRC holds about 70% of the world’s cobalt reserves.

Economy: Heavily reliant on mining; agriculture is also significant.

Mpox Epicenter: DRC is the epicenter of the global mpox outbreak, with limited vaccine access.

Environmental Significance: Home to the Congo Rainforest, the second-largest tropical rainforest in the world after the Amazon.

Colonial History: Formerly colonized by Belgium; gained independence in 1960.

5. India’s Copper Conundrum: Growing Imports and Overseas Exploration

Sub: Geo

Sec: Eco Geo

Why This is in News

India’s copper mining sector is facing challenges due to stagnant domestic production, leading to a surge in copper imports. With copper’s critical role in clean energy technologies and India’s increased reliance on imports, the government and key industry players are eyeing overseas assets to secure a steady supply.

Overview of Copper Demand and Importance

Global Copper Demand: Copper is a key indicator of economic growth, and its demand is expected to surge in the coming decade across the world.

India’s Growing Import Dependence: India’s copper concentrate imports doubled to ₹26,000 crore in FY24 from ₹13,000 crore in FY19, primarily due to stagnant domestic production.

Copper’s Role in Clean Energy: As copper is crucial for clean energy technologies such as wind turbines and electric vehicle (EV) batteries, India’s increasing reliance on imports has garnered attention.

About Copper: Copper is a malleable and ductile metal with excellent conductivity for heat and electricity. It is known for its corrosion resistance and antimicrobial properties.

Malleability: Ability to be pressed or rolled into thin sheets without breaking.

Ductility: Ability to be stretched into thin wire without losing strength or breaking.

Applications: Widely used in construction, consumer durables, transportation, and industrial manufacturing.

Essential for clean energy technologies: solar panels, electric vehicles (EVs), and energy-efficient motors.

100% recyclable, contributing to a circular economy.

Occurrence and Composition: Found naturally in the Earth’s crust in various forms.

Key forms include:

Sulphide deposits: Chalcopyrite, Bornite, Chalcocite, Covellite.
Carbonate deposits: Azurite, Malachite.
Silicate deposits: Chrysocolla, Dioptase.
Native copper: Pure form.

Average copper content in global commercial deposits: 0.8%.

In India, copper ore typically contains around 1% copper.

Mining Methods:

Open-pit mining: Dominates global copper mining, accounting for 80% of operations.
Underground mining: Used where copper is deeper underground.

Copper Deposits in India:

Major deposits:

Singhbhum (Jharkhand).
Balaghat (Madhya Pradesh).
Jhunjhunu and Alwar (Rajasthan).

Minor deposits:

Agnigundala (Andhra Pradesh).
Chitradurga and Hassan (Karnataka).
South Arcot (Tamil Nadu).

India’s Copper Demand: Copper demand is rising due to infrastructure projects, renewable energy initiatives, and urbanization.

India heavily relies on imports due to limited domestic reserves.

India’s Copper Supply Chain and Overseas Assets

Government and Industry Collaboration: Key players like Hindalco’s Birla Copper, Adani’s Kutch Copper, and Vedanta’s Sterlite Copper are working with the Ministry of Mines to secure copper supply from overseas. India is focusing on countries like Mongolia, Zambia, and Chile for securing copper assets.

Critical Mineral Status: Copper has been designated as a critical mineral due to its essential role in new technologies, making its supply chain security a priority.

Future Prospects and the Role of Overseas Assets

Underutilized Potential: India’s copper mining potential remains largely untapped. Experts suggest greater funding for private exploration agencies and even the possible privatization of HCL to boost domestic production.

Overseas Engagements: In the near term, India may need to strategically engage with copper-rich countries like Zambia, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DCR), and Chile to secure its copper supply.

6. Unlocking the Secrets of Matter: Superfast Studies of the Photoelectric Effect

Sub: Sci

Sec: Msc

Why in News?

Recent advancements in the study of the photoelectric effect have led to groundbreaking insights into molecular and atomic structures. Researchers from institutions such as SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory and Autonomous University of Madrid have made significant discoveries using ultra-short light pulses to analyze electron behavior. These findings, particularly in attosecond physics, have broad implications for areas such as imaging proteins, studying viruses, and designing next-generation electronics.

Overview of the Photoelectric Effect

The photoelectric effect, first explained by Albert Einstein in 1905, occurs when light irradiates a metal surface, causing the emission of electrons. Einstein’s Nobel Prize-winning explanation revealed that the kinetic energy of emitted electrons depends on the light’s frequency, not its intensity.

This phenomenon is central to solar power technology, where photons from sunlight knock out electrons in solar cells, generating electric current.

Key Concepts of the Photoelectric Effect

Photon Theory: Light is composed of photons, particles that carry energy. When photons have more energy than a certain threshold, they can eject electrons from metals.

Solar Cells: Understanding the photoelectric effect has enabled the development of solar cells, where photons from sunlight are used to generate electric current through electron displacement.

Advances in Studying the Photoelectric Effect

Ultrashort Light Pulses: A critical tool for studying the photoelectric effect has been the development of ultrashort light pulses. These allow for more detailed imaging of atomic and molecular structures.

They are used to capture fast-moving atomic and subatomic processes, such as electron movement.

These pulses help explore photoionisation delays, revealing detailed electronic structures in matter.

They have applications in imaging fast biological and chemical reactions, including proteins and viruses.

Femtosecond and Attosecond Pulses: Femtosecond pulses (10⁻¹⁵ seconds) enabled the study of heavy atomic nuclei. Recent advances have introduced attosecond pulses (10⁻¹⁸ seconds), which allow for the study of electron behavior.

ELECTRONS: They are negatively charged subatomic particles found in atoms. They orbit the atom’s nucleus in energy levels or shells.

Electrons play a key role in chemical bonding and reactions. Their movement generates electric current in conductors.

In the photoelectric effect, photons knock electrons out of a metal surface, creating electrical energy.

Electrons can be excited to higher energy levels or ejected from atoms during interactions like photoionization.

Breakthrough Discoveries

Photoionization Delays: Researchers have focused on photoionization delay, the time between an event and the ejection of an electron. These delays provide critical information about the molecular structure.

Nuclear Effects and Photoemission Delays: A more recent study from SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, published in August 2023, found that core electrons in nitric oxide (NO) molecules exhibit a delay of up to 700 attoseconds compared to nitrogen atoms.

Imaging and Next-Generation Electronics

The findings from these studies are critical in applications such as protein and virus imaging using X-ray technology. This research could pave the way for significant improvements in the efficiency of next-generation electronics.

The Auger-Meitner Effect: Another crucial discovery was related to the Auger-Meitner effect, where core-level electrons are replaced by higher-energy electrons, causing further delays in photoemission.

Concept: The Auger-Meitner effect occurs when an electron is ejected from the inner (core) level of an atom due to external energy, such as X-ray interaction. As a result, a higher-energy electron from an outer shell drops down to fill the vacancy. The excess energy from this transition is transferred to another electron, which is then emitted from the atom, known as the Auger-Meitner electron. This process does not involve photon emission but instead results in the emission of an electron. It helps study the electron structure and interactions within atoms.

7. Why do rockets require helium?

Sub: Sci

Sec: Space sector

Context:

Two NASA astronauts aboard Boeing’s Starliner will stay on the International Space Station for months because of a faulty propulsion system whose problems included helium leaks.
SpaceX’s Polaris Dawn mission has been delayed due to helium issues on ground equipment.
Past missions affected by helium leaks include ISRO’s Chandrayaan 2 and ESA’s Ariane 5.

Use of Helium in rockets:

Helium is used to pressurise fuel tanks and in cooling systems.
As fuel and oxidiser are burned in the rocket’s engines, helium fills the resulting empty space in the tanks, maintaining the overall pressure
This pressure ensures that fuel flows to the rocket’s engines without interruption.
Since Helium is non-reactive, it can safely mingle with the tanks’ residual contents.

Why Helium is preferred:

Inert gas:
- Helium is inert, it doesn’t react with other substances or combust.
Lighter:
- Helium is the second lightest element after hydrogen.
- A heavier rocket requires more energy and fuel, while also needing more powerful engines, which are more expensive to develop, test, and maintain.
Boiling point:
- Helium has a very low boiling point (-268.9°C), allowing it to remain a gas even in super-cold environments, an important feature because many rocket fuels are stored around that temperature.
Non-toxic:
- The gas is also non-toxic, but if breathed, it will displace the oxygen humans need for respiration.

Helium leaks:

Helium is highly prone to leaks. Helium’s low density means its atoms can escape through small gaps or seals in storage tanks and fuel systems.
However, since there is very little helium in the Earth’s atmosphere, leaks can be easily detected.

Alternatives to Helium:

Some rocket launches have experimented with argon and nitrogen, which are also inert and can sometimes be cheaper.
Europe’s new Ariane 6 rocket switched helium for a novel pressurisation system that converts a small portion of its liquid oxygen and hydrogen propellants to gas, which then pressurises those fluids for the engine. But the system failed in space.
At present, Helium continues to be the most prevalent in rockets.

8. Case of ‘clade 2’ Mpox confirmed, not part of current WHO emergency: govt.

Sub: Sci

Sec: Health

Context:

The Union Health Ministry confirmed that a person had tested positive for Mpox caused by the clade 2 strain of the virus.

Cause for concern?

The ministry says it is a travel-related isolated case and not a part of the current public health emergency by WHO which is regarding clade 1 of Mpox.
There is no indication of any widespread risk to the public at this time.
The disease surveillance network under the Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme continues to monitor for any clustering of cases.

About Mpox:

Mpox is a viral zoonotic disease caused by the mpox virus (formerly monkeypox virus).
It primarily occurs in tropical rainforest areas of Central and West Africa but has seen outbreaks globally.

Two types of the mpox virus:

Clade I:
- It originated in Central Africa and is responsible for the current outbreak in Democratic Republic of Congo.
- Clade I is known for its higher virulence and mortality rates compared to Clade II.
Clade II:
- It originated in West Africa.
- Infections from clade II mpox are generally less severe.

Transmission:

Human-to-human transmission occurs through direct contact with lesions, bodily fluids, or respiratory droplets and through indirect contact via contaminated items.
Animal-to-human transmission can occur through bites, scratches, or consumption of infected animals.

WHO Data:

According to WHO, most of the cases reported during this current outbreak of Mpox were among young males with a median age of 34 (range 18-44), with the most common mode of transmission reported globally being sexual contact, followed by person-to-person non-sexual contact.
Among cases in which at least one symptom is reported, the most common symptom is rash, followed by fever.
Around half (51.9%) of the cases with available information on their HIV status are reported to be in persons living with HIV.

9. What the Internet Archive case in the U.S. means for digital book-lending

Sub: Sci

Sec: Awareness in IT, COMPUTER

Context:

In the Hachette Book Group, Inc. v. Internet Archive case, publishers had alleged that Internet Archive violated their copyrights and illegally made their books available to the public.
The court had ruled in favour of publishers in a 2023 ruling. IA was forced to remove over half a million books from its database.

About Internet Archive (IA):

It is a US-based Non-profit organization that provides a digital library with free access to digitized content for anyone with internet access.
It has digitally archived over 835 billion web pages, 44 million books, and texts.
Content includes audio recordings, videos, images, and software programs.
Access to digitized books varies based on the type of user.
- For example, persons with disabilities can get access to the full text of books that might be still under copyright protection, while others may generally get only a short preview of the book.

Techno-legal Experiments by IA:

Controlled Digital Lending (CDL):
- Lending digitized books on a 1:1 owned-to-loaned ratio, similar to physical libraries.
- Maximum number of books available for lending corresponds to physical copies owned by IA or partner libraries.
National Emergency Library (during COVID-19):
- Liberalized lending policy for less than three months.
- Legal action was initiated by publishers for copyright violations (Hachette Book Group, Inc. v. Internet Archive).

Court ruling:

In the Hachette Book Group, Inc. v. Internet Archive case, publishers had alleged that Internet Archive violated their copyrights.
IA argued CDL falls under ‘fair use’ of U.S. copyright law and that that CDL had negligible impact on book sales.
However, Courts ruled that CDL does not qualify for ‘fair use’ and asked IA to remove copyrighted content.
The court also opined that if IA’s practices were to become unrestricted and widespread, they would annihilate publishers’ markets across formats.

Fair Use Doctrine:

The fair use doctrine is a legal principle in the United States that allows limited use of copyrighted material without the copyright owner’s permission.

Implications of the Court Ruling:

Court’s logic raises concerns about even physical libraries being seen as competing with book sales.
Book lending by libraries remains essential for public benefit, despite potential harm to publishers.

Indian Context and CDL:

Indian courts (e.g., Delhi University photocopy shop case) have demanded empirical data from publishers in copyright cases.
A balanced approach is crucial for maintaining public interest in CDL without relying on unproven inferences of market harm, if such a case arises in the future.