Daily Prelims Notes 12 December 2024

December 12, 2024
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Daily Prelims Notes

12 December 2024

Table Of Contents

1. Gene Therapy Breakthrough: A One-Time Solution for Haemophilia A

Sub : Sci

Sec: Space sector

Why in News

Indian scientists have achieved a significant breakthrough in developing a novel gene therapy for treating severe Haemophilia A. This therapy, reported in the prestigious New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM), demonstrates promising results as a potential one-time treatment for a condition that currently requires lifelong management.

What is Haemophilia A?

Haemophilia A is a hereditary disorder caused by a faulty gene, leading to insufficient levels of clotting factor VIII in the blood.
It triggers severe, spontaneous, and potentially life-threatening bleeding episodes.
The severity of the condition depends on the percentage of clotting factor present:
Severe Haemophilia A: Clotting factor <1%.
India has the world’s second-largest pool of Haemophilia patients, with an estimated 40,000 to 1,00,000 individuals.

Types of Haemophilia:

Congenital haemophilia: Haemophilia is usually inherited, meaning a person is born with the disorder (congenital).

Congenital haemophilia is classified by the type of clotting factor that’s low.
The most common type is haemophilia A, associated with a low level of factor 8 The next most common type is haemophilia B, associated with a low level of factor 9.

Acquired haemophiliac: Some people develop haemophilia with no family history of the disorder.

This is called acquired haemophilia.
Acquired haemophilia is a variety of the condition that occurs when a person’s immune system attacks clotting factor 8 or 9 in the blood.

Haemophilia inheritance: In the most common types of haemophilia, the faulty gene is located on the X chromosome. Everyone has two sex chromosomes, one from each parent.

Females inherit an X chromosome from the mother and an X chromosome from the father. Males inherit an X chromosome from the mother and a Y chromosome from the father.
This means that haemophilia almost always occurs in boys and is passed from mother to son through one of the mother’s genes.

About Factor VIII:

Factor VIII is a protein essential for blood clotting (coagulation).
It activates Factor X in the coagulation cascade, which helps form a fibrin clot to stop bleeding.
Blood Clotting Process:
- When a blood vessel is injured, clotting factors work in a sequence to stop blood loss:
  - Platelets form a temporary plug at the site.
  - Clotting factors, including Factor VIII, activate to strengthen the plug by forming a fibrin mesh.
- Role of Factor VIII: Acts as a cofactor for Factor IX to activate Factor X. Essential for converting prothrombin to thrombin, which turns fibrinogen into fibrin (a stable clot).
- Deficiency of Factor VIII: Leads to Haemophilia A, a genetic disorder characterized by prolonged bleeding.

Indian Gene Therapy for Haemophilia A:

Indian scientists have developed a novel gene therapy to treat severe Haemophilia A, providing a potential one-time solution for a condition that currently requires frequent treatments.
Mechanism: A functional gene is introduced into the patient’s body. This gene enables the body to produce sufficient Factor VIII, a blood-clotting protein, to prevent bleeding episodes.
Outcome: No bleeding episodes reported during the trial.
Significance: Marks a safer approach compared to traditional adenovirus-based methods, potentially suitable for children.

About Roctavian:

Roctavian is the first gene therapy approved by the S. FDA (2023) for treating severe Haemophilia A.
It offers a one-time treatment by addressing the genetic cause of the condition.
Mechanism: A functional copy of the Factor VIII gene is delivered into the patient’s liver cells using an Adeno-Associated Virus (AAV) vector.
This enables the liver to produce sufficient Factor VIII, reducing or eliminating the need for regular clotting factor injections.
Significance: Roctavian demonstrated a high efficacy rate in managing severe Haemophilia A.

2. Webb Confirms the Cosmos is Expanding Faster Than Expected

Sub : Sci

Sec: Space sector

Why in News

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has confirmed findings by the Hubble Space Telescope that the universe is expanding at an unexpectedly rapid rate, termed the Hubble Tension. This raises questions about current cosmological models, especially regarding dark energy and dark matter, which constitute 96% of the universe but remain poorly understood.

What is Universe Expansion?

The universe has been expanding since the Big Bang, approximately 13.8 billion years ago. This is supported by the observation of galaxies moving away from us, confirmed by the redshift of their light.
The rate of this expansion is quantified by the Hubble Constant, which defines how fast galaxies recede per unit distance.

What is Hubble Tension?

Hubble Tension refers to the discrepancy in the measurements of the Hubble Constant derived from two primary methods:
- Early Universe Measurements: Using the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation, which represents the universe’s state shortly after the Big Bang.
- Late Universe Measurements: Observing nearby supernovae and galaxies to calculate expansion rates.
- These methods yield conflicting values for Hubble Constant, creating a significant challenge in cosmology.

Causes Behind Rapid Expansion:

The rapid acceleration of the universe’s expansion is attributed to dark energy, a mysterious force counteracting gravity. Dark energy is believed to constitute about 68% of the universe.
Dark Radiation: Involves ghostly subatomic particles like neutrinos.
Exotic Gravity: Suggests the force of gravity may behave differently at cosmic scales.
Cosmological Constant: A constant energy density filling space, as proposed by Einstein’s General Relativity.
Quintessence: A dynamic field that evolves over time, unlike the cosmological constant.

Hypotheses Related to Rapid Expansion:

Early Dark Energy (EDE): Suggests that a form of dark energy existed briefly in the early universe, resolving both the Hubble tension and the unexpected brightness of early galaxies. This transient force could have accelerated the expansion shortly after the Big Bang before fading away.
Phantom Energy: A form of dark energy with an equation of state that leads to ever-increasing acceleration, potentially resulting in a “Big Rip.”
Interaction with Dark Matter: Some models propose interactions between dark energy and dark matter that influence the universe’s expansion rate.

Methods to Study Cosmic Expansion:

Measuring Galactic Distances: Observed galaxies containing Cepheid stars, which pulsate at regular intervals, serving as cosmic distance markers. Combined data from both Webb and Hubble for consistency.
Type Ia Supernovae: Standard candles to measure distances and expansion rates in the late universe.
CMB Measurements: Using satellites like Planck to analyse temperature fluctuations in the CMB.
Baryon Acoustic Oscillations (BAO): Patterns in galaxy distributions provide clues about expansion rates.
James Webb Space Telescope (JWST): Observes early galaxies to refine models of the early universe’s expansion.
HETDEX (Hobby-Eberly Telescope Dark Energy Experiment): Studies the influence of dark energy on the universe.

About Dark Matter:

A hypothesized form of matter that does not emit, absorb, or reflect light, making it invisible but detectable via its gravitational effects.
Constitutes 27% of the universe’s mass-energy content.
Influences galaxy formation and motion, providing the extra gravitational pull observed in galactic rotations.
Evidence: Gravitational lensing and the rotation curves of galaxies.

About Dark Energy:

A mysterious force driving the accelerated expansion of the universe.
Constitutes 68% of the universe’s mass-energy content.
Opposes gravity, causing galaxies to move apart at an increasing rate.
Evidence: Observations of Type Ia supernovae and the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB).

About Cepheid Stars:

Pulsating stars whose brightness varies periodically, serving as “standard candles” for distance measurement.
Used to calculate distances to galaxies and determine the universe’s expansion rate (Hubble Constant).
Characteristics: Their luminosity is directly related to their pulsation period, enabling precise measurements.

3. Climate Impact of Space Exploration

Sub : Sci

Sec: Space sector

Why in News

The growing reliance on space technology for critical functions like climate monitoring has brought attention to the environmental impact of space activities. Concerns include emissions from rocket launches, depletion of the ozone layer, and orbital debris accumulation, which threaten both Earth’s atmosphere and space sustainability.

Environmental Challenges in Space Exploration:

Impact of Rocket Launches: Rocket launches release carbon dioxide, black carbon, and water vapor into the atmosphere.
Ozone Depletion: Chlorine-based rocket propellants harm the ozone layer, increasing ground-level UV radiation and disrupting atmospheric circulation.
Satellite Ash: When satellites burn up during re-entry, they release metallic ash into the middle atmosphere, potentially altering climate dynamics.
Satellite Production: Manufacturing satellites requires large amounts of energy and materials, such as metals and composites, with substantial carbon footprints.
Orbital Debris: Defunct satellites, spent rocket stages, and fragments from collisions in Low Earth Orbit (LEO).

Barriers to Sustainable Space Activities:

Regulatory Gaps: Space activities are not included in international sustainability agreements like the Paris Agreement. Absence of binding regulations for emissions and debris management poses challenges.
Overcrowding in LEO: Increasing satellite and debris density raises costs and limits accessibility, undermining space as a shared global resource.
International Cooperation: Collaboration through bodies like the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) is essential to establish enforceable standards.

Achieving Sustainability in Space Exploration:

Reusable Rockets: Reduce manufacturing waste and costs but require higher fuel consumption and costly refurbishments.
Cleaner Fuels: Liquid hydrogen and biofuels minimize emissions but face challenges such as non-renewable production processes and high costs. Cryogenic and electric propulsion offer potential but are limited in scope and affordability.
Biodegradable Satellites: Reduce long-term debris but require further development for durability and cost-effectiveness.
Autonomous Debris Removal (ADR): Technologies like robotic arms and lasers show promise but need legal and financial support.

About Black Carbon:

Black carbon (BC) is a fine particulate pollutant formed from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biomass, and organic materials.
It is a short-lived climate pollutant but significantly contributes to global warming.
Sources:
- Burning of biomass (e.g., cow dung, straw in traditional cookstoves).
- Diesel vehicles and coal-fired power plants.
- Open burning and certain industrial processes.
Environmental Impacts:
- Absorbs solar radiation, warming the atmosphere.
- Reduces albedo when deposited on snow/ice, accelerating melting.
- Second-largest contributor to climate warming after CO₂.
Health Impacts: Linked to heart disease, birth complications, and premature deaths.

About Chlorine-Based Propellants:

Historically used in rocket fuels and as refrigerants (e.g., CFCs in aerosols).
Chlorine compounds contribute to ozone layer depletion by releasing chlorine radicals in the stratosphere.
Results in increased UV radiation reaching Earth, leading to health risks like skin cancer and ecosystem damage.
Mitigation:
- Adoption of the Montreal Protocol (1987) to phase out ozone-depleting substances.
- Transition to environmentally friendly alternatives like hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), though these also pose challenges like global warming potential.

About Space Debris:

Space debris includes defunct satellites, spent rocket stages, and fragments from disintegration, posing risks to operational spacecraft and the International Space Station.
India: ISRO’s NETRA project monitors space debris and ensures the safety of satellites. Collaboration with global agencies for debris mitigation strategies.
United Nations (COPUOS): Develops guidelines for debris mitigation and sustainable space activities.
Active Debris Removal (ADR): Technologies to remove debris, like nets and harpoons, under projects like ESA’s ClearSpace-1.
Tracking Networks: NASA and ESA maintain debris monitoring systems, such as NASA’s Orbital Debris Program.

About COPUOS (Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space):

Established: 1959 by the United Nations.
Purpose:
- Promote peaceful uses of outer space.
- Develop international space law.
- Address issues like space debris, resource utilization, and space exploration.
Key Activities:
- Development of treaties like the Outer Space Treaty (1967).
- Collaboration with member states to establish space sustainability guidelines.

4. War and Disruption Should Be Avoided, Global Priority to Restore Normalcy: FM Sitharaman

Sub : Eco

Sec: External sector

Union Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman emphasized the global need to prioritize peace and normalcy to counter economic disruptions, supply chain breakdowns, and inflation.

Speaking at the Global Economic Policy Forum 2024 organized by CII, she called for collective efforts to address the challenges posed by war and geopolitical tensions.

Key Highlights:

Global Priority: Restoring Normalcy

Sitharaman urged that wars and skirmishes must be avoided, advocating diplomacy and dialogue to resolve conflicts.
She stated that disruption caused by wars is the primary reason for global supply chain breakdowns and inflation, which transcends borders.

Tackling Inflation

Inflation as a Global Challenge:
- Described as the biggest challenge globally, inflation is fueled by disruptions in food and supply value chains.
Collaborative Approach:
- No country can address inflation alone; a coordinated global effort is required.

Realigning Industry Policies

Sitharaman emphasized the need for industries to align their policies with the country’s political and strategic priorities, particularly in light of disruptions.
Urged the industry to:
- Support small and medium enterprises (SMEs) alongside larger corporations.
- Focus on job creation and equitable economic success.
- Leverage technology to ensure the spread of benefits across all levels of society.

Responsible Borrowing and Debt Management

Highlighted the issue of intergenerational debt, stressing that countries must:
- Borrow responsibly to ensure debt sustainability.
- Avoid passing unsustainable debt burdens to future generations.
- Acknowledged India’s pandemic-related borrowing but emphasized its conscious approach to keeping debt levels manageable and focused on asset creation.

Key Recommendations from Sitharaman

Global Cooperation:
- Nations must prioritize peace and dialogue to prevent economic fallout from wars.
Blending Economics with Strategy:
- Economic policies must incorporate strategic and political considerations to counter supply chain disruptions.
Inclusive Economic Success:
- Industries must collaborate with SMEs to enhance job creation and equitable growth.
Debt Prudence:
- Countries must focus on sustainable borrowing and avoid excessive reliance on loans that burden future generations.

Global Economic Policy Forum (GEPF) –

The Global Economic Policy Forum (GEPF) is an annual platform that brings together global leaders, policymakers, economists, and industry representatives to discuss pressing economic challenges and propose actionable strategies for sustainable growth and development.

5. Will go to ‘any extent possible’ to eradicate manual scavenging: SC

Sub : Schemes

Sec: Marginalised section

Context:

The Supreme Court of India has expressed its strong commitment to eradicating manual scavenging and hazardous manual cleaning of sewers and septic tanks, calling these practices a violation of human dignity.
The court expressed strong dissatisfaction with the lack of progress in implementing the court’s 2023 order.
Despite the enactment of the Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013, these practices continue to persist in various parts of the country.

Background:

On October 20, 2023, the Supreme Court of India issued a landmark judgment directing both the Union and State governments to take concrete steps to eliminate manual scavenging and hazardous manual cleaning of sewers and septic tanks across the country.
The court noted that claims of fraternity, equality, and dignity were undermined if a significant section of society was still subjected to these hazardous and degrading tasks.
The court further questioned the effectiveness of government schemes like NAMASTE (National Action for Mechanised Sanitation Ecosystem), which were designed to mechanize sewer cleaning but had not yielded results on the ground.

Enhanced compensation for Sewer deaths:

One of the key provisions in the October 2023 judgment was an increase in compensation for families of workers who die while cleaning sewers or septic tanks.
The compensation was raised to ₹30 lakh from the earlier ₹10 lakh to provide better financial support to the victims’ families.

What is manual scavenging:

It is the practice of removing human excreta by hand from sewers or septic tanks.
India banned the practice under the Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013 (PEMSR).
The Act bans the use of any individual for manually cleaning, carrying, disposing of or otherwise handling in any manner, human excreta till its disposal.

Salient Features of the PEMSR Act 2013:

It bans manual scavenging and widened the definition of manual scavengers – to include all forms of manual removal of human excreta like an open drain, pit latrine, septic tanks, manholes and removal of excreta on the railway tracks.
It calls for a survey of manual scavenging in urban and rural areas and the conversion of insanitary latrines into sanitary latrines.
It makes it obligatory for employers to provide protective tools to the workers.
It lays key focus on rehabilitating the manual scavengers by providing them with ready-built houses, financial assistance and loans for taking up alternate occupation on a sustainable basis.
The offense of manual scavenging has been made cognizable and non-bailable.

NAMASTE Scheme:

The National Action for Mechanized Sanitation Ecosystem scheme is an initiative by the Government of India aimed at eliminating manual scavenging and ensuring the mechanization of sanitation practices, particularly for cleaning sewers and septic tanks.
It was launched in 2022 as a Central Sector Scheme and is being undertaken jointly by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs and the Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment.
The project aims to achieve:
- Zero fatalities in sanitation work in India.
- All sanitation work to be performed by skilled workers.
- No sanitation workers should come in direct contact with human faecal matter.
- Sanitation workers are to be collectivized into SHGs and are empowered to run sanitation enterprises.
- All Sewer and Septic tank sanitation workers (SSWs) have access to alternative livelihoods.

6. Amid din, Lok Sabha clears Railways Bill to enhance independence of Board

Sub : Polity

Sec: Legislation in news

Context:

The Railways (Amendment) Bill, 2024 was passed in the Lok Sabha despite disruptions during parliamentary proceedings. The bill aims to simplify and modernize the existing legal framework governing Indian Railways.

Key Provisions of the Bill:

Incorporation of Indian Railway Board Act, 1905: The Bill proposes to incorporate all provisions of the Indian Railway Board Act, 1905 into the Railways Act, 1989. This consolidation will reduce the need to refer to two separate laws.
Statutory Backing for Railway Board: The Bill provides statutory powers to the Railway Board, which has functioned without such legal backing since its inception. This will enhance its functioning and independence.
Composition of the Railway Board: It authorizes the Union government to determine the composition of the Railway Board, including the number of members, their terms of service, qualifications, and experience.
Decentralization of Powers: The Bill also aims to increase the autonomy of railway zones, a long-standing demand supported by committees like the 2014 Sreedharan Committee. Decentralization is aimed at enhancing the decision-making process at regional levels and improving service delivery.
Independent Regulator: The Bill proposes the creation of an independent regulator to oversee tariffs, safety, and private sector participation in the Railways, in line with recommendations made in 2015 by the Committee on Restructuring Railways.
Faster Infrastructure Development: The Bill will facilitate faster approval of infrastructure projects and superfast train operations, helping to meet regional transportation needs.

Evolution of Indian Railways:

The railway network in India was initially established as part of the Public Works Department before Independence.
As the network expanded, the Indian Railways Act, 1890 was enacted to provide a legal framework for its functioning.
In 1905, the Railway Board Act was introduced to govern the railway system, separating it from the Public Works Department.
After India gained independence in 1947, the railways were nationalized in 1951.
Railway Act 1989 replaced the Railways Act of 1890. The Act provides in detail the legislative provisions regarding railway zones, construction and maintenance of works, passenger and employee services.
The current amendment seeks to further modernize the system and consolidate legal provisions under the Railways Act, 1989.

7. ILO report asks nations to uphold freedom of association at work

Sub : IR

Sec: Int Org

Context:

The International Labour Organisation (ILO) released its Social Dialogue Report in Geneva, emphasizing the importance of upholding fundamental principles and rights at work, particularly freedom of association and the right to collective bargaining.
The report highlights that between 2015 and 2022, compliance with these rights deteriorated by 7%, primarily due to increased violations of civil liberties and bargaining rights.

Key Recommendations of the Report:

The report recommends that governments must actively uphold the fundamental principles and rights at work. These include ensuring the freedom of association and guaranteeing the right to collective bargaining
The report advocates for strengthening peak-level social dialogue (PLSD), which involves collaboration between governments, employers’ organizations, and workers’ organizations at national and sectoral levels.
PLSD processes, including both bipartite (employer-employee) and tripartite (government involvement) negotiations, are crucial for addressing labour, economic, and social policy issues.
The report also calls for equipping labour administrations and social partners with the necessary resources and capacities to engage effectively in these dialogues.

About ILO:

The ILO was created in 1919 by the Versailles Peace Treaty.
After the demise of the League of Nations, it became the first specialized agency of the UN.
Its secretariat is in Geneva, Switzerland.
It has 187 member states, including 186 of the 193 UN member states and the Cook Islands,
It is responsible for drawing up and over seeing international labour standards.
It has a tripartite governing structure – representing governments, employers, and workers

Reports released by ILO:

World Employment and Social Outlook (WESO)
Global Wage Report
World Social Protection Report
World Employment and Social Outlook for Youth
World of Work Report