Daily Prelims Notes 12 March 2024

March 12, 2024
Posted by: OptimizeIAS Team
Category: DPN

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Daily Prelims Notes

12 March 2024

Table Of Contents

1. One missile, many weapons: What makes the latest Agni-5 special?

Subject: Science and tech

Section: Defence

Context:

India has successfully tested an Agni-5 missile equipped with MIRV technology, joining a small group of countries with this capability.

More on news:

Vice-President lauds the success of Mission Divyastra, the first flight test of indigenously developed Agni-5 missile.
The Agni-5 missile is capable of carrying multiple warheads and striking multiple targets.
The most important thing about this new missile is its integration with what is known as the MIRV technology.
An MIRV-equipped missile has never been used so far in any conflict situation.
Arms control advocates argue that MIRV technology incentivises the urge to strike first, thus increasing the risk from nuclear weapons.

What is Mission Divyastra?

The successful launch of Mission Divyastra by Prime Minister Narendra Modi is an important milestone in India’s nuclear capability.
This is the first flight test of indigenously developed 5,000-km range Agni-5 nuclear missile, equipped with the Multiple Independently Targetable Reentry Vehicle (MIRV) technology.

What is MIRV technology?

MIRV (Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicle) technology is the capability that allows multiple warheads to be loaded on a single missile delivery system and programmed to hit different targets, thus greatly enhancing the missile’s destructive potential.
The development of MIRV capability marks a significant upgrade for India’s missile systems, and expands its nuclear options.
Traditional missiles carry a single warhead, or weapon, that goes and hits the intended target.
MIRV-equipped missiles can accommodate multiple warheads, each of which can be programmed to strike a separate target.
They can all be made to hit the same location too, one after the other, thus ensuring complete annihilation of the target.

Origin of MIRV technology:

The technology is not new.
It was developed in the 1960s and first deployed in the 1970s by the United States and the then Soviet Union.
The warheads have to be miniaturized, be equipped with independent guidance and navigation controls, and released sequentially from the delivery system.
Over the years, France, the United Kingdom, and China have developed this technology.
Pakistan too has claimed to have tested an MIRV-equipped missile called Ababeel, first in 2017 and then in 2023.

Advantages oF MIRV technology

Apart from the obvious advantage of inflicting multiple damages with a single strike, MIRV is a sought-after military technology for several other reasons.
It has the ability to penetrate missile defense systems.
A missile defense system is a network of technologies aimed at detecting, tracking, intercepting and destroying an incoming missile.
It involves the deployment of sophisticated radars, communication systems, and interceptor missiles.
It’s considered a good safeguard against traditional missiles, and several countries are in the process of developing or strengthening their missile defense systems.
MIRV-equipped missiles, however, can render the system useless.
Multiple warheads, each with an independent trajectory, can make the job of tracking and intercepting extremely complicated.
MIRV-equipped missiles can be made to carry decoy warheads to confuse the defense system.
The response strike could be disproportionate, and can thus serve as a deterrence to the enemy.

Agni upgrade

The integration of MIRV technology is a long-awaited upgrade for the Agni family of short, medium and intercontinental range ballistic missiles indigenously developed by the DRDO.
Agni missiles are the main land-based delivery systems for India’s nuclear weapons.
Developed in the 1990s, the first-generation Agni missiles were deployed in the armed forces in the mid-2000s.
Agni-1 to Agni-IV missiles have ranges between 700 to 3,500 km and can carry single payloads weighing between 12 and 40 kilotons.
Agni-5, the version that has been equipped with MIRV technology, can travel more than 5,000 km, and can potentially enter the intercontinental range as well, considered to be 5,500 km and above.
Its previous flight happened in December 2022, when its night-time capabilities were tested, among other things.
DRDO has also been developing Agni-P missiles, which are modernized versions of the short-range Agni-1 and Agni-2 variety.

2. Madhya Pradesh HC orders ASI survey of Bhojshala complex

Subject: History

Section: Art and culture

Context:

The Indore Bench of the Madhya Pradesh High Court on Monday directed the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) to conduct a scientific survey of the Bhojshala Temple-Kamal Maula Mosque complex situated in the State’s Dhar district.

More on news:

The site is an ASI-protected, 11th Century CE monument.
Under an agreement with the ASI, puja is performed in the temple by Hindus every Tuesday and Namaz offered every Friday.

About Bhojshala:

The Bhojshala is an historic temple located in Dhar, Madhya Pradesh, India.
The name is derived from the celebrated king Bhoja of theParamāra dynasty of central India, a patron of education and the arts, to whom major Sanskrit works on poetics, yoga and architecture are attributed.
The architectural parts of the structure itself are of different periods but mainly date the 12th century, with the Islamic tombs in the campus added between the 14th and 15th century.
Bhojshala is presently a Monument of National Importance protected by the Archaeological Survey of India under the Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958, otherwise known as the AMASR Act.

About King Bhoja:

Bhoja ( 1010–1055 CE) was an Indian king from the Paramara dynasty.
His kingdom was centered around the Malwa region in central India, where his capital Dhara-nagara (modern Dhar) was located.
Bhoja fought wars with nearly all his neighbors in attempts to extend his kingdom, with varying degrees of success.

3. On CEC’s solitary vigil, Supreme Court had said ‘two heads better than one’

Subject: Polity

Section: National Body

Context:

Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) Rajiv Kumar is in sole charge of the Election Commission (EC) with the resignation of Election Commissioner Arun Goel ahead of the Lok Sabha polls’ announcement.

More on news:

The Supreme Court, in S.S. Dhanoa versus Union of India, said one person at the helm of the powerful poll body was against the “tenets of democratic rule”.

Seshan case verdict:

The Election Commission can therefore be a single-member body or a multi-member body if the President considers it necessary to appoint one or more Election Commissioners.
The Constitution Bench was interpreting clause 2 of Article 324, which said that the Election Commission shall consist of the Chief Election Commissioner and such number of other Election Commissioners, if any, as the President may from time-to-time fix.
Our Constitution-makers have provided for a multi-member body.
The plain language of Article 324(2) envisages a multi-member Commission

About Election Commission:

The Election Commission of India is an autonomous constitutional authority responsible for administering Union and State election processes in India.
The body administers elections to the Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, and State Legislative Assemblies in India, and the offices of the President and Vice President in the country.
Part XV of the Indian constitution deals with elections, and establishes a commission for these matters.
Article 324 to 329 of the constitution deals with powers, function, tenure, eligibility, etc of the commission and the member

Appointment of Election Commissioners:

The CEC and ECs will be appointed by the President upon the recommendation of a Selection Committee.
Appointment of the Commission: The Commission will be appointed by the President, upon the recommendation of the Selection Committee.
The Selection Committee will comprise the Prime Minister, Cabinet Minister, and Leader of Opposition in Lok Sabha (or leader of the single largest opposition party).
A Search Committee headed by the Cabinet Secretary will suggest five names to the Selection Committee.
The Selection Committee may consider any person other than those suggested by the Search Committee.

Term and reappointment:

Members of the Election Commission will hold office for six years, or until they attain the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier.
Members of the Commission cannot be re-appointed.
If an EC is appointed as a CEC, the overall period of the term may not be more than six years.

Salary and pension:

The salary, allowances, and other conditions of service of the CEC and ECs will be equivalent to that of the Cabinet Secretary.
They will have an option to draw pension and other retirement benefits from the service that they belonged to previously.

Removal:

The CEC may be removed in the same manner and on the same grounds as a Supreme Court Judge.
ECs may be removed only upon the recommendation of the CEC.

4. SC seeks T.N. govt.’s response to HC order on child porn

Subject: Polity

Section: Legislation in news

Context:

The Supreme Court has sought a response from the Tamil Nadu government to a petition filed by Just Rights for Children Alliance, an NGO coalition, challenging a Madras High Court order that mere downloading and private viewing of child pornography was not an offense.

More on news:

A Bench, headed by Chief Justice of India D.Y. Chandrachud, issued a notice to the State on the basis of a plea against the High Court quashing the FIR and criminal proceedings against a 28-year-old man.
There was a glaring increase in child pornography cases in the country – from 44 cases in 2018 to 1,171 cases in 2022 – as per National Crime Records Bureau data.

Madras High Court Verdict:

The High Court had quashed the judicial proceedings against the man and held that downloading child pornography was not an offense under Section 67B of the Information Technology (IT) Act, 2000.
The High Court had categorically said that watching child pornography per se was not an offense as the accused had merely downloaded it on his electronic gadget and watched it in private.

About Child Pornography:

Under theThe Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (Amendment) Act,2019 a person is guilty of using a child for pornographic purposes if he uses a child in any form of media for the purpose of sexual gratification.
The Act also penalises persons who use children for pornographic purposes resulting in sexual assault. The Bill defines child pornography as any visual depiction of sexually explicit conduct involving a child including photograph, video, digital or computer generated image indistinguishable from an actual child.
The Act penalizes storage of pornographic material for commercial purposes with a punishment of up to three years, or a fine, or both.
The Bill amends this to provide that the punishment can be imprisonment between three to five years, or a fine, or both.
In addition, the Bill adds two other offenses for storage of pornographic material involving children.
These include:
- (i) failing to destroy, or delete, or report pornographic material involving a child
- (ii) transmitting, displaying, distributing such material except for the purpose of reporting it.

5. CAA: Issues in the legal challenge to the law

Subject: Polity

Section: Legislation in news

Context:

More than four years after Parliament passed The Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019, the Ministry of Home Affairs on Monday notified the Rules to implement the law.

More on news:

The CAA, which had led to widespread protests in the winter of 2019-20, is also under challenge before the Supreme Court.

Timeline of The citizenship law

In December 2019 Parliament passed an amendment to The Citizenship Act, 1955, to include a provision for grant of citizenship to migrants belonging to the Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi, or Christian communities who entered India before December 31, 2014 from Pakistan, Afghanistan, or Bangladesh.
The amendment relaxed the eligibility criteria for certain classes of migrants (on religious lines) from three neighboring Muslim-majority countries.
Certain categories of areas, including tribal areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Tripura, and areas protected by the ‘Inner Line’ system, were exempted from the purview of the CAA.
The colonial concept of Inner Line separates the tribal-majority hills of the Northeast from the plains areas.
To enter and stay in these areas, an Inner Line Permit (ILP) is needed.
The law was notified on January 10, 2020 amidst protests around the country, particularly in Assam, but could not be implemented in the absence of the Rules.
On May 28, 2021, the central government issued an order under Section 16 The Citizenship Act, 1955, giving district collectors in 13 districts with high migrant populations the power to accept citizenship applications from groups identified in the 2019 amendment.
The 39-page Rules notified in the e-gazette on Monday prescribe the modalities and procedure for eligible individuals to apply for Indian citizenship.
The Rules specify what documents and paperwork are required for putting forward and considering a claim of citizenship.

The legal challenge

The amendment was challenged before the Supreme Court in 2020 by the Indian Union Muslim League (IUML).
Since then, more than 200 petitions have been filed and tagged with the IUML’s challenge.
In October 2022, a Bench comprising then Chief Justice of India U U Lalit and Justices Ravindra Bhat and Hima Kohli passed an order stating that final hearings would begin in December 2022 after CJI Lalit’s retirement.
The challenge to the CAA rests on the ground that it violates Article 14 of the Constitution, which says that “the State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India”. The petitioners’ argue that using religion as a qualifier or a filter violates the fundamental right to equality.

The CAA and Assam:

Apart from the equality argument, part of the challenge to the CAA also rests on the fate of Section 6A of The Citizenship Act, 1955.
In December 2023, a five-judge Constitution Bench led by Chief Justice of India D Y Chandrachud reserved its verdict on the validity of Section 6A, which was introduced in the Citizenship Act after the signing of the Assam Accord between the Centre and the leaders of the Assam movement in August 1985.
The Accord determines who is a foreigner in the state of Assam.
Clause 5 of the Accord states that January 1, 1966 shall serve as the base cut-off date for the detection and deletion of “foreigners”, but there are provisions for the regularization of those who arrived in the state after that date, and upto March 24, 1971.
This was also the basis of the final NRC published in 2019.
Section 6A of the Act allows foreign migrants who came to Assam after January 1, 1966 but before March 25, 1971, to seek Indian citizenship.
If the effective cut off date of March 24, 1971 is upheld by the SC as the cut-off date for entry into the state, the CAA could fall foul of the Assam Accord, since it creates a different timeline.

6. All about India’s indigenous fifth-gen fighter jet Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA), and why it is important

Subject: Science and tech

Section: defence

Context:

The Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) this week cleared a Rs 15,000 crore project to design and develop the Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA), India’s fifth-generation fighter multirole fighter jet.

More on news:

The Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA) under the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) will be the nodal agency for executing the programme and designing the aircraft.
It will be manufactured by state-owned Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
The aircraft will put India in a select group of nations that have their own fifth-generation fighter aircraft.

Features of AMCA

STEALTH:

The 25-tonne twin-engine aircraft, which will be bigger than other fighters in the Indian Air Force inventory, will have advanced stealth features to avoid detection by enemy radar.

FUEL & WEAPONS:

The aircraft will have a large, concealed internal fuel tank of 6.5-tonne capacity, and an internal weapons bay for a range of weapons, including indigenous weapons, to be buried in its belly.

ENGINE:

The AMCA Mk1 variant will have the US-built GE414 engine of the 90 kilonewton (kN) class, while the more advanced AMCA Mk2 will fly on the more powerful 110kN engine, which will be developed indigenously by DRDO’s Gas Turbine Research Establishment (GTRE) in collaboration with a foreign defense major.
Other features such as a diverterless supersonic inlet for controlling air flow into the engines, and a serpentine air intake duct to shield the engines from radar emissions, are likely to be part of the AMCA.

Why AMCA is special

The initial plan was to jointly develop the aircraft with Russia under a Fifth Generation Fighter Aircraft (FGFA) programme.
India withdrew from the FGFA project in 2018.
The AMCA will be India’s indigenous fifth-generation fighter aircraft.
The indigenous Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Tejas is a 4.5-generation single-engine multirole aircraft.
Stealth features such as an internal weapons bay and a bigger internal fuel tank are part of fifth-generation aircraft like AMCA.
External fuel tanks and externally attached weapons leave a huge signature and are easy to detect for radar.
This will be aided by the inclusion of a comprehensive Integrated Vehicle Health Management (IVHM) system to keep track of multiple structural components, and to assess the condition of the aircraft in real-time.

Other fifth-generation fighters

Only a few countries have built a fifth-generation stealth fighter aircraft.
The list of the aircraft currently in service includes the F-22 Raptor and F-35A Lightning II of the US, the Chinese J-20 Mighty Dragon, and the Russian Sukhoi Su-57.

7. RBI’s Sell/Buy Swap to Address Liquidity Ahead of Tax Outflows

Subject: Economy

Section: Monetary Policy

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) recently conducted a $5-billion sell/buy swap on March 8, 2022, aimed at augmenting rupee liquidity in the banking system.

Purpose of the Swap:

The RBI conducted the two-year sell/buy swap to enhance dollar liquidity in the market.
In a sell/buy foreign exchange swap, a bank buys US dollars from the RBI and agrees to sell the same amount of US dollars at the end of the swap period.

Liquidity Outflows Ahead:

The banking system is expected to witness outflows of about ₹3.7-lakh crore from March 15 to 20.
These outflows are primarily due to direct tax and Goods and Service Tax (GST) payments.

RBI’s Decision Not to Roll Over:

The RBI reportedly chose not to roll over the swap, which means banks will receive rupee liquidity, and the RBI will get dollar liquidity.
By taking this step, the RBI aims to address the liquidity deficit anticipated in the banking system due to the upcoming tax outflows.

Expected Liquidity Boost:

Tripathi estimates that about ₹40,000 crore of liquidity could accrue to the banking system with the RBI taking delivery of the swap.
Additionally, the forex reserves of India will receive a boost by an equivalent amount in dollar terms.
The RBI’s decision not to roll over the swap is seen as an effort to alleviate this impending liquidity crunch.

In summary, the RBI’s sell/buy swap was a strategic move to manage liquidity ahead of significant tax outflows expected in the banking system. By not rolling over the swap, the RBI aims to infuse rupee liquidity while bolstering its forex reserves with dollar liquidity. This decision is aimed at addressing the liquidity challenges anticipated due to the tax payments in mid-March.

Dollar–Rupee Swap Auction: An Overview

A Dollar–Rupee Swap auction is a strategic foreign exchange (forex) tool used by central banks to manage currency liquidity in the banking system.

Purpose and Function:

The central bank, such as the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), conducts Dollar–Rupee Swap auctions to either infuse or withdraw liquidity from the banking system.

Types of Dollar–Rupee Swaps:

Dollar–Rupee Buy/Sell Swap:
- In this type of swap, the central bank buys US dollars (USD) from banks in exchange for Indian Rupees (INR).
- Simultaneously, the central bank commits to selling the same amount of dollars back to the banks at a later date.
- This type of swap is used to inject rupee liquidity into the banking system.

Dollar–Rupee Sell/Buy Swap:
- Conversely, in a sell/buy swap, the central bank sells US dollars to banks.
- In return, the central bank receives an equivalent amount in rupees, effectively reducing the rupee liquidity in the banking system.
- This type of swap is used to manage excess liquidity or tighten liquidity conditions.

Risk Management:

Dollar–Rupee Swap auctions are structured to mitigate exchange rate and market risks.
Transaction terms, including the exchange rate and dates for buying and selling, are predetermined and set in advance.
This pre-agreed framework helps the central bank and participating banks manage their exposure to currency fluctuations.

Liquidity Management:

The primary objective of these auctions is to regulate liquidity conditions within the banking system.
By buying or selling dollars against rupees, the central bank can influence the amount of rupee liquidity available to banks.
This, in turn, impacts interest rates, credit availability, and overall economic conditions.

Role in Monetary Policy:

Dollar–Rupee Swap auctions are part of the central bank’s monetary policy toolkit.
They allow the central bank to fine-tune liquidity levels, manage interest rates, and stabilize financial markets.

Benefits and Impact:

For Banks: Participating banks benefit by managing their short-term liquidity needs.
For Central Bank: The central bank maintains control over the money supply, influencing economic growth and inflation.

In summary, Dollar–Rupee Swap auctions play a crucial role in the central bank’s efforts to manage currency liquidity in the banking system. They provide a mechanism for injecting or withdrawing rupee liquidity, helping to regulate interest rates, credit availability, and overall economic stability. These auctions are structured to minimize risks for both the central bank and participating banks while serving as an essential tool in monetary policy implementation.

8. Oldest ‘dead galaxy’ yet is spotted by James Webb Telescope

Subject: Science and tech

Section: Space sector

Context:

A significant discovery by JWST includes observations of a galaxy that had ceased star formation when the universe was merely 5% of its current age.

Key Findings about the ‘dead galaxy’:

Scientists announced that JWST had observed a galaxy that became ‘dead’ approximately 13.1 billion years ago, around 700 million years post-Big Bang.
This marks it as the earliest dead galaxy found by about 500 million years.
The study suggests the galaxy underwent a brief star formation burst lasting 30 to 90 million years before stopping. The reasons for this cessation are currently under investigation.
- JWST’s advanced capabilities allow it to observe greater distances—and thus further back in time—than the Hubble Space Telescope. This has led to the discovery of the earliest-known galaxies, revealing them to be larger and more numerous than previously expected.
Galaxy Characteristics:
- This galaxy experienced a short, intense period of star formation before halting abruptly. With an estimated population of 100 million to one billion stars, the galaxy is considered relatively small.
- After the halt in star formation, galaxies evolve into what can be likened to stellar graveyards. As stars die without replacement, the galaxy’s colour transitions from blue (indicative of hot, massive stars) to yellow, then red (indicative of less massive stars). The most massive stars, which live the shortest lives, die first in a hierarchical fashion based on stellar weight.
Significance of the discovery:
- The discovery is particularly intriguing given the active and violent state of the early universe, which had abundant gas to fuel star formation in galaxies. The abrupt cessation of star formation in such a galaxy poses a significant puzzle.
- This discovery underscores JWST’s pivotal role in advancing our understanding of the universe’s early days, revealing phenomena that challenge current cosmological models and theories.

9. India ‘one of the worst autocratisers’: V-Dem report on democracy

Subject: IR

Section: Reports

Democracy Report 2024:

The Sweden (Gothenburg)-based V-Dem Institute released the ‘Democracy Report 2024’.
The Democracy Report 2024 is based on contributions from 4,200 scholars worldwide and utilizes 31 million datasets covering 202 countries from 1789 to 2023.
This summary underscores the concerning trend of democratic backsliding in India and globally, highlighting the critical role of upcoming elections and governance in shaping the future of democracy.

Key findings:

The V-Dem Institutecategorizes nations into four types:Liberal Democracy, Electoral Democracy, Electoral Autocracy, and Closed Autocracy.
As of 2023,71% of the world’s population (5.7 billion people) live under autocratic regimes, a significant increase from 48% a decade ago.
Democratisation is occurring in only 18 countries, affecting 5% of the global population.
The report notes deterioration in almost all democratic components, with freedom of expression, clean elections, and freedom of association/civil society being the most affected.
Electoral management bodies’ autonomy is weakening in more than half of the autocratising countries.
The report highlights a global trend towardsautocratisation, with 42 countries (35% of the global population) moving towards less democratic governance.India represents about half of this demographic, making it a significant contributor to the trend.

Specific Observations on India:

India has been downgraded from an “electoral autocracy” since 2018 to “one of the worst autocracies”.
India’s level of “liberal democracy” has regressed to levels last seen in 1975, during Indira Gandhi’s emergency declaration.
The current government, led by the BJP, has been critiqued for undermining freedom of expression, media independence, and civil liberties.
Laws related to sedition, defamation, and counterterrorism have been used to suppress dissent.
There’s a noted suppression of religious freedom, intimidation of political opponents, and silencing of dissent in academia.
Bhutan is highlighted as the only liberal democracy in South and Central Asia.
The report specifically mentions that a third term for the BJP and Mr Modi in India could lead to further autocratisation.

Source: TH

10. A tribe in the Western Ghats in need of a lifeline

Subject: Geography

Section: Human Geography

Context:

The Makuta village houses a Girijan colony inhabited by the ‘Phani Yerava’ tribe. In 2021, with local assistance, all 19 Yerava households successfully claimed forest land rights under the Forest Rights Act, covering 135 acres historically occupied by their ancestors.

Details:

The Makuta village is in the Western Ghats’ Kodagu district, Karnataka, part of the Talacauvery sub-cluster and is one of the 10 World Heritage Sites in Karnataka. This area is known for its dense tropical evergreen forests.
The findings are part of a larger research study titled “Tribals, Forest Rights and Heritage Conservation: A Study of Western Ghats in Karnataka,” sponsored by the Indian Council of Social Science Research, New Delhi.
The study suggests a need for targeted policies to support tribal communities facing socio-economic hardships and addiction problems, advocating for a holistic approach to improving their quality of life.

Key findings:

Despite obtaining forest rights, the tribe’s enthusiasm is dampened by the diminishing returns and increasing hardships of forest-dependent livelihoods.
The tribal community now primarily engages in daily labour, often travelling to nearby Kasaragod, Kerala, for work due to better wages and language comfort.
While still collecting minor forest produce like fuelwood, honey, dhoopa (incense), and shekakai (soap pod), most of it is for personal consumption without stockpiling, indicating a shift away from the traditional forest-based economy.

About Forest Rights Act, 2006:

The Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006 recognizes the rights of the forest-dwelling tribal communities and other traditional forest dwellers to forest resources, on which these communities were dependent for a variety of needs, including livelihood, habitation and other socio-cultural needs.

Objectives:

To undo the historical injustice that occurred to the forest-dwelling communities.
To ensure land tenure, livelihood and food security of the forest-dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers.
To strengthen the conservation regime of the forests by including the responsibilities and authority of Forest Rights holders for sustainable use, conservation of biodiversity and maintenance of ecological balance.

What Rights Do Forest Dwellers Get Under the Act?

The Forest Rights Act, of 2006 recognises three types of Rights:

Land Rights:

The Act gives the forest dwellers the right to ownership land farmed by them, subject to a maximum of 4 hectares per family.
Ownership is only for land that is actually being cultivated by the concerned family and no new lands can be granted.
The land cannot be sold or transferred to anyone except by inheritance.

Use Rights:

The rights of the dwellers extend to extracting Minor Forest Produce (such as tendu patta, herbs, medicinal plants etc.), grazing areas, to pastoralist routes, etc.
Minor forest produce does not include timber.

Right to Protect and Conserve:

The Act gives the forest-dwelling communities the right to protect and manage the forest.
This is vital for the thousands of village communities protecting their forests and wildlife against threats from forest mafias, industries and land grabbers.

Who Can Claim These Rights?

Members or community of the Scheduled Tribes who primarily reside in and who depend on the forests or forest lands for bonafide livelihood needs.
It can also be claimed by any member or community who has for at least three generations (75 years) before 13th December 2005 primarily resided in forest land for bona fide livelihood needs.

How Are These Rights Recognised?

Section 6 of the Forest Rights Act, 2006 provides a transparent three-step procedure for deciding on who gets rights:
Step-1: Gram Sabha makes a recommendation – i.e. who has been cultivating land for how long, which minor forest produce to be collected, etc.
Step-2: The Gram Sabha’s recommendation goes through two stages of screening committees at the Taluka and District levels.
Step-3: The District Level Committee makes the final decision. The committees have six members – three government officers and three elected persons.

Source: TH

11. A (very) basic guide to artificial intelligence

Subject: Science and tech

Section: Awareness in IT

Context:

‘Artificial intelligence’ (AI) is intelligence in a machine. There is currently no one definition of AI. A simple place to begin is with AI’s materiality, as a machine-software combination.

What does the machine do?

Linear separability is a fundamental concept in AI, illustrating how machines can distinguish between different categories of data. This concept is exemplified through the task of separating cat and dog images, a process that, while not typically assigned to linear classifiers, serves to clarify the principle involved.
Through this process, the machine attempts to find a pattern or a line (in the case of a 2D graph) or a plane (in a 3D space) that effectively separates the images into two groups, one predominantly consisting of cat images and the other of dog images. Once a satisfactory separation is achieved, demonstrating that the machine has successfully classified the images based on the given features, the experiment concludes.
This scenario underscores the machine’s ability to distinguish between categories using linear separability, a core concept in AI and machine learning, which involves finding a linear boundary that divides data into distinct groups based on their features.

How hard is decision-making?

Decision-making in AI ranges from simple to extremely complex, based on the dataset’s nature and the decision’s context.
Simple Decision-Making: In straightforward cases, such as separating a set of marbles based on a single characteristic, decision-making can be very reliable with just one parameter.
Intermediate Complexity: For tasks like distinguishing between cats and dogs, AI may require a dozen parameters. These parameters could include various physical attributes, and AI tools might plot these features on graphs to classify the subjects effectively.
High Complexity: Decision-making becomes significantly more complex in scenarios like a driverless car deciding when to brake for a bird crossing its path. Here, hundreds of parameters might be needed, including the context of the situation (e.g., the urgency of reaching a destination).
Mind-Boggling Complexity: Large Language Models (LLMs) like ChatGPT represent an even more advanced level of decision-making.ChatGPT doesn’t classify information but generates text by predicting the next word in a sequence based on its training from a massive corpus of text. This process involves understanding the creation process behind the text, reflecting the real world. ChatGPT operates with over 100 billion parameters, showcasing its high level of complexity in decision-making and text generation.

Types of Machine Learning:

Supervised Learning: Involves learning from labeled data, where the structure and categories of the data are defined.
Unsupervised Learning: The machine learns to organize and interpret data without predefined labels or categories, identifying patterns and structures on its own.
Reinforcement Learning: The machine learns through trial and error, adjusting its actions based on feedback to maximize a reward signal.

Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs):

ANNs are computational models inspired by the human brain’s network of neurons. They consist of nodes (or neurons) connected in a way that allows the network to learn and make decisions.
Components:
- Activation Functions: Algorithms that determine a node’s output based on its input signals.
- Weights: Values that represent the importance of each input to the node, influencing the output.

Transformers:

A type of ANN that allows for parallel training, making it efficient for processing large datasets.
Components:
- Encoder: Breaks down input data (e.g., an image) into smaller pieces and encodes it as numerical data.
- Decoder: Processes the encoded data to reconstruct or interpret the input data’s content.
Significance: Introduced in 2017 by Google, transformers have significantly improved the performance of ANNs in tasks like language translation by focusing attention on different parts of the input data.

GPUs and AI Development:

A Graphics Processing Unit initially designed for rendering graphics in video games, is now widely used in running ANNs due to its ability to perform parallel computing tasks efficiently.
Nvidia’s Role: Nvidia has become a leading provider of GPUs for AI and machine learning, experiencing rapid growth in valuation due to the demand for AI technologies.
Market Challenges:
- Competition from companies developing non-GPU hardware.
- Researchers creating smaller, less resource-intensive learning models.
- Development of new software to reduce dependency on specific hardware, like Nvidia’s GPUs.

Source: TH

12. FAO publishes first national report on AMR surveillance in India’s fisheries, livestock sectors

Subject: Science and tech

Section: Health

Report: Indian Network for Fishery and Animal Antimicrobial Resistance (INFAAR) Report 2019-22.

Published by: The report is a collaborative effort by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), with support from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID).

Details:

It marks the first antimicrobial resistance (AMR) surveillance trends report in India’s fisheries and livestock sectors.
INFAAR, encompassing 20 laboratories, aims to inform policy and decision-making for AMR containment through data on AMR trends.

Multidrug Resistance (MDR) in Aquaculture and Livestock Sectors:

Escherichia coli is a gram-negative, facultative anaerobic, rod-shaped, coliform bacterium of the genus Escherichia that is commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms.
Most E. coli strains are harmless, but some serotypes such as EPEC, and ETEC are pathogenic.
- E. coli Isolates:39% of aquaculture-origin E. coli isolates showed multidrug resistance (MDR), meaning resistance to three or more classes of antimicrobials.
- In food-animal samples, a significant pattern of MDR was observed, particularly against cefotaxime-enrofloxacin and tetracycline, with 12.6% of isolates showing resistance. Notably, 15.8% of poultry isolates displayed simultaneous resistance to these antimicrobials.
Extended Spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)and AmpC β-lactamase Producers: The study identified 370 isolates of ESBL-producing E. coli and 292 isolates of AmpC type β-lactamase producers, both associated with MDR.

Key Findings in the Fisheries Sector:

Surveillance covered three aquaculture systems: freshwater, brackish water, and marine.
Over 3,087 farms across 42 districts in 12 Indian states were surveyed.
A total of 6,789 bacterial isolates (including species like Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli, and others) were analyzed.
- Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive spherically shaped bacterium, a member of the Bacillota, and is a usual member of the microbiota of the body, frequently found in the upper respiratory tract and on the skin.
- Methicillin-resistant S aureus (MRSA) is a drug-resistant variant of Staphylococcus.
High resistance was observed against antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin across different systems.
Specific resistance patterns were noted for Aeromonas species in freshwater systems and Vibrio species in saltwater environments.

Key Findings in the Livestock Sector:

Surveillance included major food-producing animals like cattle, buffalo, goats, sheep, pigs, and poultry.
Out of 5,983 samples,2,076 E. coli and 1,244 Staphylococcus isolates were characterized.
Notable resistance was observed against cefotaxime and ampicillin in E. coli isolates.
Approximately 75% of both S. aureus and coagulase-negative Staphylococcus (CONS) isolates exhibited penicillin resistance.
Poultry-origin isolates displayed higher resistance rates compared to other food animals for all tested antibiotics.

Implications and Concerns:

The report underscores the critical issue of AMR in both the fisheries and livestock sectors in India.
The data highlight the urgent need for informed policy and measures to contain AMR spread, crucial for both human and animal health.
Specific attention is needed to address the high resistance rates observed, particularly in pathogens that pose significant health risks to humans.
This comprehensive surveillance data serves as a foundation for future research, policy formulation, and targeted interventions to combat antimicrobial resistance in India’s crucial agricultural sectors.

Source: DTE