Daily Prelims Notes 13 October 2024

October 13, 2024
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Daily Prelims Notes

13 October 2024

Table Of Contents

1. Emergency contraceptive pills need no prescription

Sub: Sci

Sec: Health

Context:

The Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO) has denied recent claims suggesting a shift of Emergency Contraceptive Pills (ECPs) from over-the-counter status to prescription-only.
There has been no change in the sales and distribution status of ECP brands like I-Pill and Unwanted-72. These pills remain available over the counter.

Importance of ECPs:

Emergency contraceptive pills are vital for preventing unwanted pregnancies, effective when taken within 72 hours of unprotected intercourse.
According to the National Family and Health Survey-5 (2019-2021), 57% of women acquire ECPs over the counter.

Regulation of Other Contraceptive Drugs:

Currently, drugs such as Centchroman and Ethinyloestradiol fall under Schedule ‘H’ of the Drugs Rules, requiring a doctor’s prescription for sale.
Manufacturers must label these drugs with a caution statement indicating they can only be sold with a prescription from a registered medical practitioner.
However, certain strengths of contraceptive drugs, including specific combinations of DL-Norgestrel, Levonorgestrel, and Ethinyloestradiol, are categorized under Schedule K. This means that these particular strengths do not require a doctor’s prescription for purchase.

Role of CDSCO:

The CDSCO operates under the Health Ministry and is responsible for regulating pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and medical devices in India.
Its duties include drug approval, clinical trial oversight, standard-setting, quality control of imports, and coordination with state drug control organizations.

2. Modi lauds RSS for its 100-year journey

Sub: History

Sec: Modern India

Context:

As the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) celebrated its centenary year on Saturday, Prime Minister Narendra Modi congratulated the organization.

About RSS:

The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) was founded on September 27, 1925, by K.B. Hedgewar in Nagpur, India.
The RSS aims to promote the concept of Hindutva, which emphasizes the cultural and national identity of Hindus in India.
The RSS is considered the ideological parent of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), influencing Indian politics.

Functioning:

It operates as a volunteer organization with a hierarchical structure, including various wings and affiliates focused on social, cultural, and educational activities.
Over the years, the RSS has expanded its reach, with thousands of branches (shakhas) across India and a growing presence among the Indian diaspora.
The RSS conducts training camps, community service projects, and cultural programs, promoting discipline and patriotism among its members.

Criticism:

The RSS came under scrutiny following the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi by Nathuram Godse in 1948. The organization was banned temporarily but was later allowed to operate again.
The RSS has faced criticism for its perceived role in promoting Hindu nationalism and for allegations of fostering communal tensions, though it advocates for national integration.

History of ban:

1948: RSS was banned following Gandhi’s assassination, but the ban was lifted in 1949 after it pledged allegiance to the Constitution.
1966: Government employees were prohibited from joining the RSS, which was reiterated in 1970 and 1980.
1975-1977: The organization was banned during emergency, which was ban lifted in 1977.
1992: The RSS was banned after the Babri Masjid demolition, which was lifted in 1993 when a commission found the ban unjustified.

3. Charles Correa’s designs were about people, climate

Sub: History

Sec: Art and Culture

Context:

The sixth Z-axis conference, organized by the Charles Correa Foundation (CCF), was titled Conversations with Charles Correa: A critical review on six decades of practice, and it reflected on his impressive 60-year career.

Z-axis conference:

The Z-Axis Conference is a platform dedicated to discussions on architecture, urban planning, and related fields.
It brings together professionals, scholars, and enthusiasts to explore innovative ideas and reflect on significant contributions in these areas.
The documentary Volume Zero, shown at the conference highlighted Correa’s dedication to prioritizing people and nature in his designs.
The conference also marked the launch of his biography titled Citizen Charles, authored by architect Mustan sir Dalvi.

About Charles Correa:

Charles Correa, an influential architect and urban planner, believed that architecture should be like sculpture, designed for people and infused with life.
Some of Correa’s famous projects include the Gandhi Memorial Museum, Bharat Bhavan, Jawahar Kala Kendra, and Madhya Pradesh Vidhan Bhavan, all of which promoted inclusivity and responded to climate challenges.
Correa also understood the housing needs of lower-middle-class families and proposed Navi Mumbai to the government. After his proposal was accepted, he served as the Chief Architect for the City and Industrial Development Corporation of Maharashtra.

4. Revolutionary Discovery of MicroRNA: Unlocking the Secrets of Gene Regulation

Sub : Sci

Sec: Biotech

Why in News

The Nobel Prize in Medicine for 2024 was awarded to Victor Ambros and Gary Ruvkun for their ground breaking discovery of microRNA and its role in post-transcriptional gene regulation. This discovery has opened new doors in understanding how different types of cells develop, leading to significant advancements in molecular biology and gene regulation.

About MicroRNAs (miRNAs):

They are small RNA molecules that regulate gene expression in eukaryotes by interfering with the translation of mRNA into proteins.

The discovery began with experiments on C. elegans, a tiny roundworm, where researchers showed that gene regulation can happen post-transcription, challenging the previous understanding that it was solely the domain of transcription factors.

By 2001, microRNAs were found to be present in invertebrates and vertebrates, and many of them were highly conserved across species, indicating that microRNA-mediated regulation is a universal mechanism.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, non-coding RNA molecules, approximately 21-24 nucleotides in length, involved in regulating gene expression.

miRNAs bind to messenger RNA (mRNA) in the cell cytoplasm to control gene expression.

They either trigger the degradation of mRNA or prevent it from being translated into proteins, thereby regulating protein production.

Underexpression of miRNA can lead to overexpression of the protein it controls, while overexpression of miRNA results in underproduction of the associated protein.

miRNAs are involved in key biological processes such as development, cell differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis (programmed cell death).

They help maintain cellular homeostasis and respond to environmental stimuli.

Alterations in miRNA expression contribute to diseases like cancer, autoimmune disorders, and other human conditions.

Circulating miRNAs are considered potential biomarkers for diagnosis and prognosis of various diseases due to their stability in human fluids.

Ambros and Ruvkun’s Contribution:

Victor Ambros and Gary Ruvkun, both American biologists, made significant strides in understanding gene regulation while studying mutant strains of roundworms. They focused on two genes, lin-4 and lin-14, which were instrumental in revealing the role of microRNA. Their collaborative efforts led to the discovery of microRNA as a new principle of gene regulation. Published in 1993, their findings reshaped the scientific understanding of molecular biology.

Future Applications of MicroRNA

MicroRNA in Disease and Health MicroRNAs regulate entire gene networks, impacting many physiological and pathological processes. Researchers have discovered that dysregulation of microRNA contributes to the development of cancers and other diseases. For example, mutations in genes coding for microRNAs can cause conditions such as congenital hearing loss and skeletal disorders.

Role in Cancer Research Studies have shown that abnormal microRNA regulation plays a significant role in cancer development. Mutations in microRNA-related proteins, like those causing DICER1 syndrome, are associated with cancer across multiple tissues.

Potential Therapeutic Applications Understanding microRNA’s regulatory functions offers potential therapeutic applications in gene therapy, targeted cancer treatments, and the diagnosis of genetic disorders. Researchers are now investigating how to manipulate microRNA pathways to treat diseases caused by gene dysregulation.

5. Deadline Set for Nagaland Government’s Response on Creation of Frontier Nagaland Territory

Sub : Polity

Sec: Federalism

Why in News

The Eastern Nagaland People’s Organisation (ENPO) has issued an October 31, 2024, deadline for the Nagaland government to provide feedback to the Ministry of Home Affairs on the proposal for creating an autonomous territory named Frontier Nagaland Territory (FNT). This move could significantly impact the governance and territorial arrangement of Nagaland, specifically the six eastern districts bordering Myanmar.

What is Frontier Nagaland Territory?

The proposed FNT would comprise six districts: Kiphire, Longleng, Mon, Noklak, Shamator, and Tuensang.

The ENPO represents seven tribes: Konyak, Phom, Sangtam, Yimkhiung, Chang, Tikhir and Khiamniungan, has led the demand for the creation of FNT, citing long-standing neglect by the Nagaland state government towards these districts.

These districts make up about 20 out of 60 seats in the Nagaland Legislative Assembly and are located along the India-Myanmar border, making them strategically significant.

The ENPO claims that the eastern districts have been systematically neglected in terms of infrastructure, education, and development, which has prompted their call for greater political and administrative autonomy.

Historical Background: The demand for FNT was first articulated in 2010 by the ENPO, citing long-standing neglect by the state government in terms of infrastructure, education, and healthcare services in these regions.

The demand gained momentum in 2023, when people from these districts boycotted Nagaland’s Statehood Day and the Hornbill Festival—a major cultural event showcasing Naga heritage.

Constitutional Provisions:

Article 371A (Special Status for Nagaland): Nagaland enjoys special provisions under Article 371A of the Indian Constitution. This article ensures that no Act of Parliament in respect of religious or social practices of the Nagas, their customary laws, ownership of land, and its resources, applies to the state unless the Legislative Assembly of Nagaland passes a resolution to do so. This gives Nagaland significant autonomy over cultural and legal matters.

The Sixth Schedule of the Constitution of India allows for the formation of autonomous administrative divisions which have been given autonomy within their respective states.

Most of these autonomous district councils are located in North East India but two are in Ladakh, a region administered by India as a union territory.

Presently, 10 Autonomous Councils in Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Tripura are formed by virtue of the Sixth Schedule with the rest being formed as a result of other legislation.

The governor is empowered to organise and re-organise the autonomous districts. Thus, he can increase or decrease their areas or change theirnames or define their boundaries and so on.

If there are different tribes in an autonomous district, the governor can divide the district into several autonomous regions.

Each autonomous district has a district council consisting of 30 members, of whom four are nominated by the governor and the remaining 26 are elected on the basis of adult franchise.

The elected members hold office for a term of five years (unless the council is dissolved earlier) and nominated members hold office during the pleasure of the governor.

Each autonomous region also has a separate regional council.

The district and regional councils administer the areas under their jurisdiction. They can make laws on certain specified matters like land, forests, canal water, shifting cultivation, village administration, inheritance of property, marriage and divorce, social customs and so on.

But all such laws require the assent of the governnor.

The district and regional councils within their territorial jurisdictions can constitute village councils or courts for trial of suits and cases between the tribes. They hear appeals from them.

The jurisdiction of high court over these suits and cases is specified by the governor.

The district council can establish, construct or manage primary schools, dispensaries, markets, ferries, fisheries, roads and so on in the district. It can also make regulations for the control of money lending and trading bynon-tribals. But such regulations require the assent of the governor.

The district and regional councils are empowered to assess and collect land revenue and to impose certain specified taxes.

The acts of Parliament or the state legislature do not apply to autonomous districts and autonomous regions or apply with specified modifications and exceptions.

6. Impact of Technological Advancements on Protein Studies: Insights from 2024 Chemistry Nobel Laureates

Sub : Sci

Sec: Awareness in IT and Computers

Why in News

The 2024 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was jointly awarded to David Baker, Demis Hassabis, and John Jumper for their significant contributions to protein research, particularly in protein structure prediction and design. Their groundbreaking work has redefined our understanding of proteins, crucial to all life forms, and opened new possibilities in the field of biotechnology.

Importance of Proteins: Proteins are the fundamental building blocks of life. They are composed of amino acids and play key roles in various biological processes such as catalysis of biochemical reactions, structural support, molecular transport, muscle contraction, and cell communication.

About Proteins:

Proteins are large, complex molecules made of amino acids that perform vital biological functions.

Proteins are composed of one or more long chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.

Proteins have four levels of structure—primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary—dictating their shape and function.

Proteins are involved in structural support, catalyzing reactions (enzymes), transport, immune defense, and cellular signaling.

Common types include enzymes, antibodies, structural proteins (e.g., collagen), and transport proteins (e.g., hemoglobin).

Proper folding into a specific 3D shape is crucial for their functionality; misfolding can cause diseases.

Proteins are synthesized in cells by ribosomes through a process called translation, using mRNA as a template.

Proteins are broken down into amino acids via proteolysis, allowing the body to recycle amino acids.

Proteins are involved in every cellular process, from DNA replication to cell structure maintenance.

About Amino Acids:

Amino acids are the basic units that make up proteins. There are 20 standard amino acids used to build proteins in humans and most organisms.

Each amino acid consists of an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a unique side chain (R-group).

Out of the 20, 9 are essential and must be obtained through diet. The remaining 11 amino acids can be synthesized by the body.

Amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds to form proteins. Amino acids play roles in metabolism, enzyme function, and cell signalling.

Amino acids are encoded by the DNA sequence via codons in the genetic code. Amino acids are crucial for growth, repair, and maintaining body functions.

The Protein-Folding Problem

What is Protein Folding? Protein folding refers to the process by which a protein’s amino acid chain acquires its specific three-dimensional structure, which determines its function. The challenge lies in predicting this structure based on the amino acid sequence alone.

The 1962 Nobel Prize was awarded for the elucidation of the first 3D structures of proteins (hemoglobin and myoglobin) using X-ray crystallography. This set the stage for modern protein research.

Breakthroughs in 1969: Scientists discovered that proteins possess an inherent ability to fold themselves into the correct shape—a phenomenon central to the “protein-folding problem.”

AlphaFold: Revolutionizing Protein Structure Prediction

Co-founded by Demis Hassabis, DeepMind developed AlphaFold, a deep-learning model capable of predicting the 3D structures of proteins with high accuracy. By 2020, its predictions rivalled the precision of traditional X-ray crystallography.

What is AlphaFold?

AlphaFold is a revolutionary tool that predicts the 3D structure of proteins, developed by DeepMind, co-founded by Demis Hassabis in 2010 and acquired by Google in 2014.

AlphaFold 1 (2018): The original model could predict the structure of almost any protein based on known structures.

AlphaFold 2 (2020): Achieved accuracy comparable to X-ray crystallography in predicting protein structures.

AlphaFold 3 (2024): Led by John Jumper, this version expanded its capabilities to predict interactions between proteins and between proteins and other molecules.

AlphaFold is an AI-based protein structure prediction tool. It is based on a computer system called deep neural network. Inspired by the human brain, neural networks use a large amount of input data and provides the desired output exactly like how a human brain would.

The real work is done by the black box between the input and the output layers, called the hidden networks.

AlphaFold is fed with protein sequences as input. When protein sequences enter through one end, the predicted three-dimensional structures come out through the other. It is like a magician pulling a rabbit out of a hat.

How does AlphaFold work?

AlphaFold is an AI-based protein structure prediction tool. It used processes based on “training, learning, retraining and relearning” to predict the structures of the entire 214 million unique protein sequences deposited in the Universal Protein Resource (UniProt) database.

About Rosetta Program: In 2003, David Baker introduced the Rosetta software, used to predict and design protein structures. This tool has been widely adopted in computational biology.

Applications of Protein Design:

COVID-19 Antiviral Spray: In 2022, Baker’s team designed an antiviral protein-based nasal spray that targets the spike protein of the COVID-19 virus.

Commercial Reactions: Baker’s work also led to the design of new enzymes for industrially valuable chemical reactions, including those used to manufacture atorvastatin (a cholesterol-lowering drug) and vitamin B6.

7. 2024 Physics Nobel Laureates: Pioneers of Artificial Neural Networks and Their Role in AI

Sub : Sci

Sec: Awareness in IT and Computers

Why in News

On October 8, 2024, John Hopfield and Geoffrey Hinton were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for their ground breaking contributions to artificial neural networks (ANNs). Their pioneering work has laid the foundation for modern machine learning technologies, playing a critical role in the development of Artificial Intelligence (AI).

What is an Artificial Neural Network?

Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) are computing systems inspired by biological neural networks in the brain, designed to simulate human cognitive functions like learning and problem-solving.

ANN is inspired by the structure of the human brain, specifically its network of neurons.

Neurons communicate through synapses, strengthening or weakening connections as new information is learned. Similarly, ANN nodes simulate neurons by adjusting connection strengths based on data input.

ANNs learn by adjusting the strength of connections between nodes, much like how the brain strengthens connections between neurons when learning new information. This allows the ANN to recognize patterns and make decisions without being explicitly programmed to follow specific instructions.

The concept originated in the 1940s with early models like the McCulloch-Pitts neuron model.

Significant advancements occurred in the 1980s when John Hopfield introduced Hopfield networks, and Geoffrey Hinton developed deep learning architectures in the 2000s.

Structure: ANNs consist of layers of interconnected nodes (neurons). Each node processes input data and passes it through activation functions to produce output. The system adapts by strengthening or weakening the connections (synapses) between nodes.

ANNs learn by adjusting the weights of connections during training through algorithms like backpropagation, which minimizes errors between predicted and actual outcomes.

Types of ANN:

Feedforward Neural Networks: Information flows in one direction, from input to output.

Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs): Nodes form directed cycles, allowing data to flow in both directions, suitable for sequence prediction.

Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs): Designed to process structured grid data like images, typically used in image and video recognition.

Hopfield Networks: A type of recurrent network, used for associative memory and optimization problems.

Relation to Deep Learning:

Deep learning is a subset of machine learning involving multi-layered ANNs (often more than three layers), enabling the model to learn complex patterns from vast datasets. Deep learning techniques, such as Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) and Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks, are used for tasks like image classification and speech recognition.

Applications: ANNs are widely applied in:

Image and speech recognition (e.g., facial recognition, voice assistants).

Natural language processing (e.g., chatbots, translation tools).

Medical diagnostics (e.g., identifying diseases in medical images).

Autonomous vehicles (e.g., interpreting sensor data for navigation).

Finance (e.g., stock market predictions and fraud detection).

John J. Hopfield and the Hopfield Network

In 1982, Hopfield introduced a type of recurrent neural network, now called the Hopfield network, which models the brain’s associative memory system. It is designed to process information and recognize patterns based on the strength of connections between neurons.

The network’s learning is based on the Hebbian learning principle, where if one neuron consistently activates another, the connection between them strengthens.

Hopfield applied principles of statistical physics, such as energy minimization in magnetic systems, to explain how neural circuits could perform complex tasks. This was a significant leap in understanding the computational potential of simple neuron models.

Geoffrey E. Hinton and the Boltzmann Machine

Hinton, building on the Hopfield network, adapted the Boltzmann machine to perform cognitive tasks. He later introduced the Restricted Boltzmann Machine (RBM), which became one of the first deep learning networks.

Restricted Boltzmann Machines (RBMs) are a type of artificial neural network that is particularly useful in unsupervised learning. They are designed to discover patterns in data by modelling the underlying probability distribution.

Hinton’s work in the 2000s led to the creation of ANNs capable of deep learning, which allowed for the training of multiple layers of neurons to recognize patterns in complex data. This architecture has been instrumental in modern AI applications.

Hinton’s advances have been applied in image recognition, natural language processing, medical diagnostics, and more, with substantial success in fields such as physics, chemistry, and finance.