Daily Prelims Notes 17 December 2024

Daily Prelims Notes

17 December 2024

Table Of Contents

1. Impact of La Niña on India’s Climate
2. BJP Demands Return of Jawaharlal Nehru’s Letters as National Heritage
3. New Insights into Aerosol Chemistry and Air Quality in Extreme Winters
4. If India does have a claim on chess invention, its ancient elephant corps have a part to play
5. Review of studies shows Indus Valley, other ancient societies in South Asia were able to develop resilience to climate change
6. In interim order, SC says T.M. Krishna should not be recognised as recipient of M.S. Subbulakshmi award
7. Labour committee asks Centre to increase minimum PF pension

1. Impact of La Niña on India’s Climate

Sub: Geo

Sec: Climatology

Why in News

• The India Meteorological Department (IMD) anticipates the emergence of a La Niña phase by late 2024 or early 2025. A delay in the La Niña onset is expected to influence India’s winters, summers, and subsequent monsoon patterns.

What is La Niña?

• La Niña is a phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), a climate phenomenon that involves variations in sea surface temperatures and atmospheric pressure in the tropical Pacific Ocean.
• It can influence weather patterns globally, affecting rainfall, temperatures, and storm systems.
• The ENSO has three phases, which occur in irregular cycles of two to seven years.:
  • El Niño (warm phase),
  • La Niña (cool phase),
  • Neutral phase.

What happens during La Nina:

• In La Niña, the trade winds (winds blowing from east to west across the Pacific) are stronger than usual, pushing warm surface waters to the western Pacific.
• This allows cooler waters from below the surface to upwell along the eastern Pacific, leading to lower-than-normal sea surface temperatures in this region.
• In India, El Niño is associated with decreased rainfall and higher temperatures, while La Niña is associated with increased rainfall and hence lower temperatures.

Global Impacts

• La Niña Effects:
  • Normal or above-normal rainfall during Indian monsoons.
  • Droughts in Africa.
  • Intensified hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean.
• El Niño Effects:
  • Extreme summers and droughts in India.
  • Increased rainfall in the southern United States.

El Niño:

• In the El Niño phase, the trade winds weaken, leading to lesser displacement of warmer waters off the South American coast.
• Consequently, the eastern Pacific becomes warmer than usual.

Neutral phase:

• In the neutral phase, the eastern side of the Pacific Ocean (near the northwestern coast of South America) is cooler than the western side (near the Philippines and Indonesia).
• This is due to the prevailing wind systems that move from east to west, sweeping the warmer surface waters towards the Indonesian coast.
• The relatively cooler waters from below come up to replace the displaced water.

What is a Triple Dip La Niña?

• A Triple Dip La Niña refers to the rare occurrence of three consecutive La Niña events over three years.
• It happens when La Niña conditions persist or re-emerge for three successive winters.
• The most recent Triple Dip La Niña occurred from 2020 to 2022.
• This phenomenon is unusual as most ENSO phases (El Niño or La Niña) last for one or two years.

About Oceanic Niño Index (ONI):

• The Oceanic Niño Index (ONI) measures sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies in the East-Central Tropical Pacific Ocean over a rolling three-month period.
• Classification:
  • El Niño: ONI value is +0.5°C or higher.
  • La Niña: ONI value is –0.5°C or lower.
  • Neutral Phase: ONI values fall between –0.4°C and +0.4°C.
• ONI values must persist above or below the thresholds for at least five consecutive overlapping three-month periods to declare a full-fledged El Niño or La Niña.
• Current Status (2024): The ONI value is around –0.3°C, indicating a neutral phase and no active La Niña.
• Importance of ONI: Used as a key indicator for monitoring ENSO phases. Provides insights into global climate patterns, such as monsoon rainfall in India or hurricane activity in the Atlantic.

About Planetary Boundary Layer Height (PBLH):

• The Planetary Boundary Layer Height (PBLH) refers to the lowest layer of the atmosphere directly influenced by interactions between the Earth’s surface and the atmosphere.
• It is where surface heating, moisture exchange, and wind interactions
• Characteristics of PBLH: The height varies diurnally and seasonally:
  • Daytime: PBLH is higher due to surface heating and convection.
  • Nighttime: PBLH decreases as cooling sets in, creating a more stable atmosphere.
• Role in Meteorology:
  • A higher PBLH allows pollutants to disperse, improving air quality.
  • A lower PBLH traps pollutant near the surface, worsening air quality.
  • Affects cloud formation, wind dynamics, and surface temperatures.
• PBLH During ENSO Events:
  • La Niña Winters:
    • Typically associated with slightly lower PBLH in India, especially in winter.
    • This could lead to higher pollution levels as pollutants are trapped closer to the ground.
  • El Niño Winters:
    • Tend to have a higher PBLH, facilitating pollutant dispersion.
  • Current Implications: If a La Niña develops, northern India could see increased biomass burning for heating, worsening air pollution. However, higher wind speeds typical of La Niña may counteract this by dispersing pollutants.

2. BJP Demands Return of Jawaharlal Nehru’s Letters as National Heritage

Sub : History

Sec : Modern history

Why in News

• The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) has called for the return of a significant collection of letters written by India’s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, which were reportedly shifted to the residence of former Congress president Sonia Gandhi in 2008. These letters, considered historical documents, were originally part of the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library (NMML), now renamed the Prime Ministers’ Museum and Library (PMML).

Background:

• The letters were written by Jawaharlal Nehru to prominent figures such as Lady Edwina Mountbatten, Babu Jagjivan Ram, and Jayaprakash Narayan.
• These documents provide a glimpse into Nehru’s era when traditional correspondence was the primary mode of communication.
• The letters were donated to the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library in 1971.
• In 2008, 51 cartons of these documents were reportedly taken to Sonia Gandhi’s residence with approval from the then NMML director.

BJP’s Allegations

• BJP spokesperson argued that the letters are not personal property but part of India’s national heritage.
• He emphasized the need for public access to these documents, highlighting their historical and cultural importance.
• A digitisation project for the letters, planned in 2010, could not commence as the documents were moved before the process began. This has raised concerns about potential attempts to suppress their content.

Prime Ministers’ Museum and Library (PMML):

• The Nehru Memorial Museum and Library (NMML), now known as the Prime Ministers’ Museum and Library (PMML), is a premier institution in New Delhi dedicated to preserving and studying modern Indian history
• Founded in 1966 in memory of India’s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, NMML is situated in the historic Teen Murti House, Nehru’s former official residence.
• Constituent Units: The institution comprises several key components:
  • Memorial Museum: Showcases Nehru’s life and contributions.
  • Library on Modern India: Houses an extensive collection of books, manuscripts, and periodicals related to India’s modern history.
  • Centre for Contemporary Studies: Facilitates research on current historical and cultural topics.
  • Nehru Planetarium: Aims to promote scientific temper among the public.
• In 2023, the institution was renamed the Prime Ministers’ Museum and Library to honour all of India’s Prime Ministers, reflecting a broader focus beyond Nehru.
• The institution has undertaken digitization projects to make its vast archival collections accessible online, enhancing research opportunities for scholars worldwide.
• PMML serves as a vital resource for researchers, historians, and the public, offering insights into India’s political heritage and the contributions of its leaders.

Jawaharlal Nehru:

• Birth: November 14, 1889, in Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh.
• Family: Son of Motilal Nehru, a prominent lawyer and leader of the Indian National Congress, and Swaroop Rani.
• Education: Studied at Harrow School, Trinity College (Cambridge), and later at the Inner Temple, London, to become a barrister.
• Joined Freedom Movement: Inspired by Mahatma Gandhi’s call for non-cooperation in 1919.
• Indian National Congress: Became Congress President for the first time in 1929 at the Lahore session, where the demand for Purna Swaraj (complete independence) was formalized.
• Advocated socialism and industrialization for India’s development.
• Imprisoned multiple times for participating in various agitations, including the Civil Disobedience Movement and the Quit India Movement (1942).
• First Prime Minister: Served as the Prime Minister of independent India from 1947 to 1964, the longest-serving PM in Indian history.
• Planning Commission: Established in 1950 to steer India’s planned economic development.
• Implemented the first Five-Year Plan in 1951, emphasizing agriculture and irrigation.
• Foreign Policy:
  • Advocate of Non-Alignment Movement (NAM): Co-founded with leaders like Yugoslavia’s Tito and Egypt’s Nasser.
  • Championed Panchsheel Principles: Five principles of peaceful coexistence signed with China in 1954.
• Economic Policy: Advocated a mixed economy combining public and private sectors.
• Education and Science:
  • Established premier institutions like IITs, IIMs, and AIIMS.
  • Formed the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) in 1962.
• Books Written:
  • The Discovery of India (1946): Reflects Nehru’s vision for India’s cultural and historical heritage.
  • Glimpses of World History (1934): Letters to his daughter, Indira Gandhi, providing insights into world history.
  • An Autobiography (1936): Chronicles his life and political journey.
• Death: May 27, 1964, in New Delhi, due to a stroke.

3. New Insights into Aerosol Chemistry and Air Quality in Extreme Winters

Sub: Env

Sec : Pollution

Why in News

• A recent study by researchers from the University of Alaska Fairbanks and the Georgia Institute of Technology has uncovered a new chemical pathway responsible for worsening air quality during harsh winters.

Contrasting Air Quality: Dras vs. Fairbanks

• Dras (Ladakh, India)
  • Winter temperature: Around -20°C.
  • Air quality: Remarkably clean and healthy.
• Fairbanks (Alaska, USA)
  • Winter temperature: Around -22.4°C.
  • Air quality: Among the worst in the U.S., ranked first in particle pollution (PM).

Particulate Matter (PM):

• PM10-2.5: Particles with diameters between 2.5 and 10 micrometres (μm).
• PM2.5: Ultrafine particles smaller than 2.5 μm, capable of penetrating the lungs and causing severe health issues such as asthma and premature death.
• PM 10 and PM 2.5 are smaller than 10 and 2.5 microns in their diameter, respectively.
• The PM 2.5 particles can easily bypass the nose and throat and can enter the circulatory system.
• The particles can also lead to chronic diseases such as asthma, heart attack, bronchitis and other respiratory problems.
• Byproducts of emissions from factories, vehicular pollution, construction activities and road dust, such particles are not dispersed and stay suspended in the air that we breathe.
• PM2.5 Nonattainment Area: Designation for areas where PM2.5 levels exceed the permissible limit of 35 μg/m³ of air. Fairbanks was declared such an area in 2009 due to emissions from wood stoves, fuel oil burning, industrial sources, and automobiles.

Hydroxymethanesulphonate Formation:

Hydroxymethanesulfonate (HMS) is an organosulfur compound formed through the aqueous-phase reaction between formaldehyde (HCHO) and Sulphur dioxide (SO₂).

This reaction typically occurs in atmospheric water droplets, such as those found in fog or clouds.

Formation Mechanism:

• HMS is produced when formaldehyde reacts with dissolved Sulphur dioxide in the presence of liquid water.
• Elevated relative humidity provides the necessary aqueous medium for the reaction.
• Colder conditions enhance the solubility of gases like SO₂ and HCHO in water droplets, promoting HMS formation.
• Aerosol particles with moderate pH levels facilitate the reaction.

Environmental Impact:

• HMS can constitute a significant fraction of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in the atmosphere, especially during severe pollution episodes.
• The presence of HMS in aerosols contributes to haze formation and deteriorates air quality, posing health risks.
• As a component of aerosols, HMS influences the Earth’s radiative balance by affecting cloud formation and atmospheric albedo.
• Research in Fairbanks, Alaska, has shown that during winter, lower sulphate concentrations combined with low temperatures lead to less acidic PM particles, increasing HMS production.
• Implications for Emission Controls: Studies suggest that reducing emissions of formaldehyde and other volatile organic compounds may decrease particulate Sulphur levels, indicating a potential co-benefit for air quality management.

Global Significance: HMS has been detected in various regions worldwide, indicating its global relevance in atmospheric chemistry.

Health Considerations: Fine particulate matter containing HMS can penetrate deep into the respiratory tract, potentially leading to adverse health effects.

Aerosol:

• An aerosol is a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas.
• In the Earth’s atmosphere, aerosols play a crucial role in environmental and climatic processes.
• These particles can originate from natural sources (e.g., volcanic eruptions, sea spray) or human activities (e.g., industrial emissions, vehicle exhaust).

Types of Aerosols

• Natural Aerosols:
  • Dust: Fine particles from soil or deserts, carried by wind.
  • Sea Spray: Salt particles formed when ocean waves break.
  • Volcanic Ash: Tiny particles ejected into the atmosphere during volcanic eruptions.
  • Biogenic Aerosols: Organic particles like pollen, spores, or microbial fragments.
• Anthropogenic (Human-Made) Aerosols:
  • Industrial Emissions: Sulfates, nitrates, and other pollutants released by factories.
  • Combustion Products: Black carbon and organic carbon from vehicle exhaust and biomass burning.
  • Urban Pollution: Aerosols formed due to vehicular traffic and industrial activities.

Role of Aerosols in the Atmosphere

• Radiative Forcing:
  • Cooling Effect: Aerosols like sulfate reflect sunlight back into space, reducing the Earth’s surface temperature.
  • Warming Effect: Black carbon absorbs sunlight, contributing to atmospheric warming.
• Cloud Formation: Aerosols act as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), enabling water vapor to condense and form clouds.
• Air Quality Impact: High concentrations of aerosols reduce visibility and degrade air quality, posing health risks.
• Impact on Climate: Aerosols influence the global climate by affecting the energy balance of the Earth and modifying cloud properties (indirect effect).

4. If India does have a claim on chess invention, its ancient elephant corps have a part to play

Sub: History

Sec : Art and culture

Context:

• Gukesh D’s recent victory over Ding Liren, making him the youngest chess grandmaster and reigning world champion, has once again brought attention to India’s historical ties with chess.

Origins of Chess:

• Most historians agree that chess originated in northwestern India around 600 A.D.
• While some, like author Jean Louis Cazaux, dispute the Indian origins, evidence points to its spread from India → Persia → Arabs → Europe.
• Ancient war elephants in Indian armies played a critical role in the evolution of the game.\

Chaturanga and Ashtapada:

• Chaturanga:
  • A term referring to both early chess and the four components of an Indian army: infantry, chariots, cavalry, and elephants.
  • The romance Vasavadatta by Subandhu (late 6th or early 7th century A.D.) may have the first reference though it is not clear.
  • Clear mention is found in early Indian texts such as the Harshacharita (7th century A.D.).
• Ashtapada:
  • A board with 64 squares, believed to have been the chessboard’s precursor.
• Historical Evidence:
  • According to G. Ferlito and A. Sanvito (Origins of Chess: Protochess, 400 B.C. to 400 A.D.):
    • Chaturanga likely emerged during 400 B.C. to 400 A.D.
    • The chess-like game spread through India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Central Asia.

Elephant Corps in Indian Warfare:

• The use of elephants in war originated in India and is documented in ancient texts:
  • Rig Veda, Ramayana, and Mahabharata (300 B.C.–300 A.D.).
  • Indian armies had four divisions: infantry, cavalry, chariots, and elephants (chaturanga).
• Greek Testimony:
  • Alexander’s encounter with King Porus (326 B.C.) highlights Indian armies composed of 50,000 infantry, 1,000 chariots, 130 elephants, and 3,000 cavalry.
• Decline of Chariots: Chariots fell out of military use by 400 A.D. and were entirely replaced by 700 A.D.

Journey of Chaturanga to Chess:

• From Chaturanga to Persia (Chatrang):
  • After the Hunas invaded India (5th–6th century), cultural exchange occurred between the Indian Maukhari Dynasty and the Persian Sassanid Empire.
  • King Sharvavarman’s envoy from Kannauj introduced Chaturanga at the Persian court of Khosrow I.
• The Challenge:
  • The Indian envoy presented the game, challenging Persian scholars to understand its rules.
  • Khosrow’s vizier successfully played and won, leading Kannauj to pay tribute to Persia.
• From Persia to the Arabs (Shatranj):
  • With the Arab conquest of Persia (642–651 A.D.), the game spread to the Rashidun Caliphate.
  • The Arabs adapted the game, calling it Shatranj (as Arabic lacks ‘ch’ and ‘g’ sounds).
• From Arabs to Europe (Chess):
  • Shatranj traveled to North Africa and Muslim Spain.
  • From Spain, it spread across Europe and evolved into modern chess.

Source: DTE

5. Review of studies shows Indus Valley, other ancient societies in South Asia were able to develop resilience to climate change

Sub : History

Sec: Ancient History

Context:

• A recent review of scientific studies highlights how ancient societies in South Asia, particularly the Indus Valley Civilisation, developed resilience to climate change over the past 5,000 years.

Indus Valley Civilisation: Water Management and Agricultural Adaptation

• Impact of Drought (~4,200 years ago):
  • Scholars believe several civilisations, including the Indus Valley, Akkadian Empire (Mesopotamia), and Old Kingdom Egypt, were disrupted by drought events.
• Water Management Innovations:
  • Efficient water use: Active interventions like ponds and reservoirs expanded surface water availability for agriculture.
  • Cropping strategies: Indus settlements adopted diverse agricultural methods tailored to various precipitation regimes and socio-ecological conditions.
• Urban Planning and Monsoon Variability:
  • The Harappans developed advanced urban planning and water management systems to adapt to unpredictable monsoons.
  • Rural settlements with flexible farming strategies played a crucial role in ensuring socio-economic resilience.

Indus Valley Civilization was the first major civilization in South Asia,  which spread across a vast area of land in present-day India and Pakistan (around 12 lakh sq.km).

The time period of mature Indus Valley Civilization is estimated between BC. 2700- BC.1900 ie. for 800 years. But early Indus Valley Civilization had existed even before BC.2700.

Features of Indus Valley Civilization:

• On the valleys of river Indus.
• Also known as Harappan Civilization.
• Beginning of city life.
• Harappan Sites discovered by – Dayaram Sahni (1921) – Montgomery district, Punjab, Pakistan.
• Mohanjodaro discovered by – R. D. Banerji – Larkana district, Sind, Pakistan.
• The city was divided into Citadel(west) and Lower Town(east).
• Red pottery painted with designs in black.
• Stone weights, seals, special beads, copper tools, long stone blades etc.
• Copper, bronze, silver, gold present.
• Artificially produced – Faience.
• Specialists for handicrafts.
• Import of raw materials.
• Plough was used.
• Bodies were buried in wooden coffins, but during the later stages ‘Hsymmetry culture’ evolved where bodies were buried in painted burial urns.
• Sugar cane not cultivated, horse, iron not used.

Indus Valley Sites and Specialties

HARAPPA

• Seals out of stones
• Citadel outside on banks of river Ravi

MOHENJODARO

• Great Bath, Great Granary, Dancing Girl, Man with Beard, Cotton, Assembly hall
• The term means ” Mount of the dead”
• On the bank of river Indus
• Believed to have been destructed by flood or invasion(Destruction was not gradual).

CHANHUDARO

• Bank of Indus river. – discovered by Gopal Majumdar and Mackey (1931)
• Pre-Harappan culture – Jhangar Culture and Jhukar Culture
• Only cite without citadel.

KALIBANGAN

• At Rajasthan on the banks of river Ghaggar, discovered by A.Ghosh (1953)
• Fire Altars
• Bones of camel
• Evidence of furrows
• Horse remains ( even though Indus valley people didn’t use horses).
• Known as third capital of the Indus Empire.

LOTHAL

• At Gujarat near Bhogava river, discovered by S.R. Rao (1957)
• Fire Altars
• Beside the tributary of Sabarmati
• Storehouse
• Dockyard and earliest port
• double burial
• Rice husk
• House had front entrance (exception).

ROPAR

• Punjab, on the banks of river Sutlej. Discovered by Y.D Sharma (1955)
• Dog buried with humans.

BANAWALI

• Haryana
• On banks of lost river Saraswathi
• Barley Cultivation.

DHOLAVIRA

• Biggest site in India, until the discovery of Rakhigarhi.
• Located in Khadir Beyt, Rann of Kutch, Gujarat. Discovered by J.P Joshi/Rabindra Singh (1990)
• 3 parts + large open area for ceremonies
• Large letters of the Harappan script (signboards).

RELIGION OF INDUS VALLEY

• Pashupathi Mahadev (Proto Siva)
• Mother goddess
• Nature/ Animal worship
• Unicorn, Dove, Peepal Tree, Fire
• Amulets
• Idol worship was practised (not a feature of Aryans)
• Did not construct temples.
• The similarity to Hindu religious practises. (Hinduism in its present form originated later)
• No Caste system.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

• The systematic method of weights and measures (16 and its multiples).
• Pictographic Script, Boustrophedon script – Deciphering efforts by I. Mahadevan
• Equal status to men and women
• Economic Inequality, not an egalitarian society
• Textiles – Spinning and weaving
• 3 types – burial, cremation and post-cremation were there, though burial was common.
• Majority of people Proto-Australoids and Mediterranean (Dravidians), though Mongoloids, Nordics etc were present in the city culture. Read more on races of India.

6. In interim order, SC says T.M. Krishna should not be recognised as recipient of M.S. Subbulakshmi award

Sub : History

Sec: Art and culture

Context:

• The Supreme Court issued an interim order preventing Carnatic vocalist T.M. Krishna from being recognized as the recipient of The Hindu-Sangita Kalanidhi M.S. Subbulakshmi Award.

About the case:

• The petition was filed by V. Shrinivasan, a Bengaluru resident and grandson of the late M.S. Subbulakshmi, who claimed that Krishna had made disrespectful and misogynistic remarks about the Bharat Ratna honoured singer.
• The petitioner argued that someone who insulted Subbulakshmi should not receive an award in her name.

Supreme court’s order:

• The order clarified that the decision was not a reflection on the Music Academy or The Hindu Group, nor a comment on T.M. Krishna’s singing ability. The interim order aimed to address the legal dispute regarding Krishna’s remarks about M.S. Subbulakshmi.
• The court emphasized that the Music Academy had the right to select the awardee, but until the matter was fully clarified, Krishna should not be presented with the award.

M.S. Subbulakshmi:

• M.S. Subbulakshmi (Madurai Shanmukhavadivu Subbulakshmi) was one of India’s most iconic and revered classical Carnatic vocalists.
• Subbulakshmi was the first musician to be awarded the Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian award, in 1998.
• She was also awarded the Padma Bhushan in 1954 and the Padma Vibhushan in 1975.
• She was also the first Indian musician to receive the prestigious Ramon Magsaysay award.

Classical music

The history of the system of music that prevailed in India from ancient times, goes back to the Vedas. The Indian musical system shows to what heights the genius of man could soar in quest of new forms of musical expression. Apart from its entertainment value, music was cherished and practised for its quality of lifting mankind to a nobler plane, enabling the soul to attain eternal bliss. The perfect tone system and the extensive raga and tala systems of Indian music, make it comparable with any other sophisticated musical system of the world.

The earliest treatise we have on music is the Natya Sastra of Bharata. Other treatises on music after Bharata, such as the Brihaddesi of Matanga, Sangeeta Ratnakara of Sharangadeva, Sangeet Sudhakara of Haripala, Swaramelakalanidhi of Ramamatya, etc., provide us a fund of information about the different aspects of music and its development during the different periods.

The ancient Tamils of South India had also developed an highly evolved system of music with its solfa methods, concordant and discordant notes, scales and modes, etc. A number of instruments were also used to accompany song and dance. The Tamil classic of the 2nd century A.D. titled the Silappadhikaram contains a vivid description of the music of that period. The Tolkappiyam, Kalladam and the contributions of the Saivite and Vaishnavite saints of the 7th and 8th centuries A.D. also serve as resource material for studying musical history.

The course of the evolution of Indian music saw the emergence of two different sub systems as Hindustani and Carnatic music. In Haripala’s “Sangeeta Sudhakara”, written in the 14th century A.D., the terms Carnatic and Hindustani are found for the first time.

• Carnatic music owes its name to the Sanskrit term KarnâtakaSangîtam which denotes “traditional” or “codified” music.
• Composed of a system of Ragam (Raga) and Thalam (Tala), it has a rich history and tradition.
• Carnatic Sangeet has developed in the south Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. These states are known for their strong presentation of Dravidian culture.

Renaissance of Carnatic Music

• The course of the evolution of Indian music saw the emergence of two different subsystems as Hindustani and Carnatic music. Both the terms emerged for the first time in Haripala’s “SangeetaSudhakara”, written in the 14th century A.D.
• The two distinct styles, Hindustani and Carnatic came into vogue after the advent of the Muslims, particularly during the reign of the Mughal Emperors.
• Purandardas (1484-1564), a prolific poet-composer and mystic of Vijayanagar, is considered to be the father of Carnatic music (Carnatic SangeetaPitamaha).
• Venkatamakhi is regarded as the grand theorist of Carnatic music. In 17th century AD, he developed “Melakarta”, the system for classifying south Indian ragas. There are 72 Melakartas at present.
• Tyagaraja (1767-1847), his contemporaries SyamaSastri and MuttusvamiDikshitar are together known as the “Trinity” of Carnatic music.

Difference between Carnatic and Hindustani Music

1. Gitam

• Simplest type of composition, taught to beginners.
• Simple melodic extension of a raga with uniform tempo.
• No divisions, sections, or intricate variations; sung from start to end without repetition.
• Theme: Devotional or praises of musical luminaries/Acharyas.
• Notable feature: Use of gitalankara phrases (e.g., a iya, va iya).
• Composed in Sanskrit, Kannada, and Bhandira bhasha.
• Pillari Gitas by Purandaradasa are the first taught to students.
• Types:
  • Lakshya Gitas: Describe the raga lakshanas.
  • Composers: Purandaradasa, Paidala Gurumurti Sastry, and Venkatamakhi.

2. Suladi

• Similar to Gitam but of a higher standard.
• Talamalika: Sections in different talas.
• Fewer sahitya syllables; includes vowel extensions.
• Composed in different tempos – Vilambita, Madhya, and Druta.
• Theme: Devotional.
• Composer: Purandaradasa.

3. Svarajati

• Learned after Gitams; more complicated, a precursor to Varnams.
• Composed of three sections: Pallavi, Anupallavi, and Charanam.
• Themes: Devotional, heroic, or amorous.
• Originated as a dance form with jatis (solfa syllables).
• Syama Sastri composed svarajatis without jatis as brilliant concert pieces.

4. Jatisvaram

• Similar to Svarajati but has no sahitya (lyrics).
• Sung with solfa syllables only.
• Focus on rhythmic excellence and jati patterns.
• Used in dance music.
• Some forms include a mix of jatis and svaras.

5. Varnam

• Unique to Carnatic music; has no counterpart in Hindustani music.
• Combines all characteristic features of a raga.
• Helps attain mastery over raga, tala, and bhava.
• Theme: Bhakti (devotion) or Sringara (love).
• Two types:
  • Tana Varnam: Concert form.
  • Pada Varnam: Dance form.
• Sections:
  • Purvanga: Pallavi, Anupallavi, Muktayi Svaras.
  • Uttaranga: Charanam and Charana Svaras.
• Composers: Pachchimiriyam Adiyappayya, Swati Tirunal, Patnam Subrahmanya Iyer, and others.

6. Kirtanam

• Originated in the 14th century; simple music with Bhakti bhava.
• Used in both congregational singing and solo presentations.
• Structure: Pallavi, Anupallavi, and Charanam.
• Composers: Bhadrachalam Ramadasa, Tyagaraja.

7. Kriti

• Evolved form of Kirtana, rich in raga bhava and aesthetic excellence.
• Basic structure: Pallavi, Anupallavi, and Charanam.
• Added embellishments:
  • Chittasvaras, Madhyamakala Sahitya, Svara-sahitya, and more.
• Composers: Musical Trinity (Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, Syama Sastri).

8. Pada

• Scholarly compositions in Telugu and Tamil.
• Slow, dignified music with themes of Madhura Bhakti (divine love).
• Characters: Nayaka (Lord), Nayika (Devotee), Sakhi (Guru).
• Main composer: Kshetrajana.

9. Javali

• Light classical compositions; sensuous in nature.
• Set in Madhyama Kala and composed in Telugu, Kannada, and Tamil.
• Ragas: Paraj, Kaphi, Behag, etc.
• Resembles Thumri of Hindustani music.

10. Tillana

• Brisk and rhythmic form, similar to Hindustani Tarana.
• Used in dance and concerts as concluding pieces.
• Begins with jatis and includes sahitya.
• Composers: Swati Tirunal, Pallavi Seshayyar, etc.

11. Pallavi

• Creative form of music in Manodharma Sangeeta.
• Focuses on improvisation in raga and tala.
• Structure:
  • Prathamangam (first part)
  • Dvityangam (second part).
• Related to Khyal in Hindustani music.
• Kalpana Svaras and Niraval are key features.

12. Tanam

• A branch of Raga Alapana sung in Madhyamakala (medium tempo).
• Rhythmic and flowing musical patterns.

7. Labour committee asks Centre to increase minimum PF pension

Sub : Schemes

Sec : Economy

Context:

• The Parliamentary Standing Committee on Labour, led by Basavaraj Bommai, has recommended an increase in the minimum pension provided by the Employees Provident Fund Organisation (EPFO) under the Employees Pension Scheme (EPS).
• This recommendation was made after considering the demands from trade unions and pensioner associations for a revision of the pension amount.

Issues with current Pension system:

• Under the EPS, the minimum pension has been fixed at ₹1,000 per month since 2014.
• In 2023-24, there were 20,64,805 pensioners receiving the minimum pension of ₹1,000 per month.
• Over a decade has passed since this amount was set, and the Committee acknowledged that the cost of living has significantly increased in 2024 compared to 2014.
• In response to concerns raised by various stakeholders, including pensioners and trade unions, the Committee recommended a revision of the minimum pension amount.

Employees’ Pension Scheme (EPS):

• EPS was introduced in 1995 and is administered by the Employees’ Provident Fund Organisation (EPFO), under the Ministry of Labour and Employment.
• It provides pension benefits to employees in the organized sector upon retirement.
• Employees who are members of the Employees’ Provident Fund (EPF) automatically become members of EPS.
• Both employer and employee contribute 12% of the employee’s monthly salary (basic wages plus dearness allowance) to the EPF scheme.

Government contribution:

• The government contributes 16% of wages to the EPS, with a wage ceiling of ₹15,000 per month.
• A grant-in-aid is provided to cover the difference between the minimum pension of ₹1,000 and the actual pension that members receive.

Implementation of Labour Codes:

• The Committee also addressed the delay in the implementation of the four Labour Codes, which are still pending.
• The report emphasized that it is the statutory obligation of States and Union Territories (UTs) to prepare the necessary rules for the implementation of these codes.

Parliamentary Committees:

• Indian Constitution mentions two kinds of Parliamentary Committees: Standing Committees and Ad Hoc Committees.
• The Standing Committees are permanent (constituted every year or periodically) and work on a continuous basis, while the Ad Hoc Committees are temporary and cease to exist on completion of the task assigned to them.
• The report of the committee is of a recommendatory nature. The government can choose to accept or reject its recommendations.