Daily Prelims Notes 20 November 2024

November 20, 2024
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Category: DPN

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Daily Prelims Notes

20 November 2024

Table Of Contents

1. Over 30 countries endorse COP29 Declaration on Reducing Methane from Organic Waste

Sub : Env

Sec: Int conventions

COP29 Declaration on Reducing Methane from Organic Waste:

Over 30 countries, including eight of the 10 largest methane emitters from organic waste, endorsed the COP29 Declaration.
Focus on setting sectoral targets for food waste within future Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).
Builds on the Global Methane Pledge (COP26), aiming to reduce global methane emissions by 30% by 2030.
CCAC (Climate and Clean Air Coalition) supports over 30 nations in including methane and other short-lived pollutants in their NDCs.

Priority Areas of the Declaration:

NDC Inclusion: Incorporating methane reduction targets in waste management.
Regulation: Learning from global best practices to improve waste policies.
Data: Leveraging satellite and on-site measurements for methane monitoring.
Finance: Investments in solid waste management and methane capture projects.
Partnerships: Global collaboration to share knowledge and best practices.

Significance of Methane in the Waste Sector:

Methane contributes 1/3 of net warming since the pre-industrial era.
Organic waste (food, yard waste, paper, bodily waste) decomposes in oxygen-free environments, emitting methane.
Waste sector accounts for 20% of global anthropogenic methane emissions.

Global Leadership and Collaboration:

COP29 builds on UAE‘s focus on oil and gas methane (COP28) and aligns with Brazil‘s expected focus on agriculture at COP30.
The European Commission supports the declaration’s objectives but requires internal consultation for formal endorsement.

Sources of Methane emission-

Methane is produced by the breakdown or decay of organic material and can be introduced into the atmosphere by either natural processes – such as the decay of plant material in wetlands, the seepage of gas from underground deposits or the digestion of food by cattle – or human activities – such as oil and gas production, rice farming or waste management.
More than half of global methane emissions stem from human activities in three sectors: fossil fuels (35% of human-caused emissions), waste (20%) and agriculture (40%).

Why Act on Methane?

Reducing methane mitigates climate change, improves public health, and safeguards groundwater around landfills.
Waste management advancements present economic, environmental, and health benefits, making this a critical step forward.

Global Methane Pledge:

The Global Methane Pledge was launched at the UN COP26 climate conference in Glasgow.
It is an effort led jointly by the United States and the European Union.
Methane is the second-most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, after carbon dioxide, and, therefore, pledges related to cutting down its emissions are significant.

Source: DTE

2. UNESCO unveils roadmap for global tsunami preparedness to protect all coastal residents by 2030

Sub : Geo

Sec: Geomorphology

Context:

Marking 20 Years Since the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami: UNESCO’s Call for Preparedness.

UNESCO’s Tsunami Preparedness Roadmap:

Goal: Establish 100 tsunami-ready coastal communities globally by 2030.
Platform: Unveiled during a four-day international conference in Banda Aceh, Indonesia, commemorating the devastating 2004 tsunami.
Outcome: Adoption of the Banda Aceh Statement, a global commitment to enhance tsunami warning and mitigation systems.

Key Highlights from the Conference:

Global Tsunami Risk and Preparedness
- 700 million people live in tsunami-prone coastal regions; expected to rise to 1 billion by 2050.
- High-risk areas like the Pacific face tsunamis every 1–2 years, with a near 100% chance of a tsunami in the Mediterranean within 30 years.
Progress Achieved
- Over 30 countries have benefited from UNESCO’s Tsunami Ready Programme since its launch post-2004.
- New Tsunami Ready communities recognized:
  - 26 in India
  - 12 in Indonesia
- Real-time tsunami drills conducted in Banda Aceh villages tested preparedness.

Three-Step Warning Process:

Detection:
- Advanced systems like seismic sensors, deep-ocean tsunami buoys, and submarine cable observatories for rapid sea-level disturbance identification.
Warning:
- Accurate forecasting of wave propagation and immediate impact assessment.
Dissemination:
- Alerting populations through sirens, radio, smartphones, and other communication channels.

UNESCO’s Expanded Global Network:

Assets:
- Tens of thousands of seismometers.
- 1,200+ active sea-level stations.
- 74 deep-ocean tsunami buoys.
Coverage: High-risk areas worldwide, including the Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning and Mitigation System.
UNESCO aims to confirm tsunami threats within 10 minutes or less for high-risk coastlines by 2030.

Lessons from Past Events

2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami: Claimed over 227,000 lives across 15 countries.
2011 Japanese Tsunami: Nearly 20,000 fatalities within minutes, highlighting the need for swift action and robust community preparedness.

What is Tsunami Ready?

The UNESCO-IOC (International Oceanographic Commission) Tsunami Ready Recognition Programme (TRRP) is an international community-based effort to bolster risk prevention and mitigation across global coastal zones.
It aims to build tsunami resilience through awareness and preparedness strategies that will protect life, livelihoods and property from tsunamis.
Methodology:
- This voluntary, performance-based community recognition programme is a collaborative effort to meet a standard level of tsunami preparedness.
- 12 indicators have been conceived to provide a consistent evaluation standard. All must be met to gain the recognition, which is renewable every four years.

Tsunami:

A tsunami or a seismic sea wave is a series of waves that are caused in a large water body like an ocean by the displacement of massive volumes of water. The displacement can occur due to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, meteorite impacts, underwater explosions, etc.
Tsunamis are sometimes called tidal waves because they resemble rapidly rising tides, but scientists avoid this usage since tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the sun and the moon whereas tsunamis are caused by water displacement.
On 26 December 2004, a megathrust earthquake with its epicentre off the west coast of Sumatra, Indonesia struck the Indian Ocean and triggered a series of devastating tsunamis that affected 14 countries including India, killing a total of about 2,80,000 people.
About 2004 Tsunami disaster:
- The 2004 tsunami was caused by a massive earthquake that was the third-largest earthquake ever recorded on a seismograph. It measured between 9.1 and 9.3-moment magnitude. The duration of faulting was between 8.3 and 10 minutes and this was the longest ever.
- The epicentre was in the Indian Ocean between Simeulue and mainland Indonesia.
- The scientific community named this earthquake the Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake. Its very high intensity makes it a megathrust earthquake.
- About 1600 km of fault surface slipped 15 m along the zone where the Indian Plate slides under the Burma Plate.
- It triggered several aftershocks for up to 3 to 4 months after the event. An enormous amount of energy was released as a result of the seismic activity and the earth is said to have wobbled minutely on its axis. The alteration in the mass and the energy released also caused a change in the earth’s rotation.
- Due to the earthquake, the seabed rose vertically by many metres displacing a huge volume of water thus, causing the tsunami.
- Indonesia was the first country to be hit by the tsunami because of its proximity. It also saw the maximum casualty, close to 1,70,000 being killed.
- The eastern coast of India was hit about 2 hours later sometime after 9:00 AM local time. Kerala was hit after another 2 hours. It also hit countries far away like Somalia, Tanzania and even South Africa. Bangladesh was spared the horror despite its nearness to the epicentre because the tsunami waves were in the east-west direction.
- The tsunami was also detected in Antarctica, Mexico and Vancouver in Canada.

Source: DTE

3. Act fast to mitigate a disaster in Teesta Valley, groups urge PM, CMs

Sub : Geo

Sec: Indian physical geo

Context:

The Teesta Valley has only six months before the 2025 monsoon aggravates the damage wrought by the disastrous glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) in October 2023.

Key Issues and Damage from the 2023 GLOF:

Casualties: Over 100 lives lost.
Impact:
- Livelihoods disrupted and critical infrastructure destroyed, including military installations.
- Ecological damage across Sikkim and West Bengal.
Displacement: 65 families in West Bengal’s Kalimpong district remain in relief camps.
Ongoing Threats:
- Areas along the Teesta River, like Teesta Bazaar, are still sinking.
- NH10, vital for Kalimpong and Sikkim, remains unstable during monsoons, impacting tourism and the local economy.

Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF):

A Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) is a sudden release of water from a glacial lake, often caused by the failure of natural dams formed by moraines, ice, or other debris. These floods can have catastrophic consequences for downstream areas.

Causes of GLOFs

Triggering Events:
- Rapid Glacier Melting: Often due to rising global temperatures.
- Avalanches or Landslides: Falling debris into the lake increases pressure on the natural dam.
- Ice Calving: Sudden collapse of a part of a glacier into the lake.
- Seismic Activity: Earthquakes or volcanic eruptions destabilize the lake structure.
Dam Weakness:
- Moraine dams (made of loose debris) are inherently unstable and prone to failure.
- Saturation due to heavy rainfall can weaken the dam.

Key Features

Suddenness: GLOFs are typically rapid, leaving little time for evacuation.
High Energy: The released water carries large volumes of debris, enhancing its destructive potential.
Range of Impact: Can travel tens to hundreds of kilometers downstream, affecting settlements, infrastructure, and ecosystems.

Impacts of GLOFs

Human Casualties: Loss of lives due to the sheer speed and volume of the flood.
Infrastructure Damage: Destruction of roads, bridges, dams, and hydropower facilities.
Environmental Effects:
- Soil erosion and landscape changes.
- Disruption of ecosystems and biodiversity.
Economic Losses:
- Loss of livelihoods, particularly in agriculture and tourism.
- Costs associated with reconstruction and rehabilitation.

Prevention and Mitigation Strategies

Monitoring and Early Warning Systems:

Use remote sensing (satellites) to monitor lake conditions.
Install real-time warning systems downstream.

Structural Measures

River Management: Use NHPC expertise to deepen, widen, and redirect the Teesta River to mitigate overflow risks.
Roads and Bridges: Repair and strengthen infrastructure to restore connectivity and disaster response capability.
Evacuation Centers: Upgrade facilities with solar power backups.

Non-Structural Measures

Early Warning Systems: Install automated flood alert systems using sirens and mobile notifications.
- Introduce backup communication tools like ham radios and walkie-talkies.
Awareness Campaigns: Build local capacity for risk management and disaster preparedness.

Land-Use Planning and Zoning

Resettlement: High-risk zones to be designated for evacuation and resettlement. Provide adequate compensation and support for relocation.
Sustainable Development: Avoid infrastructure in vulnerable areas.

Afforestation and Ecosystem Restoration

Goal: Prevent soil erosion, Regulate river flow.
Actions: Launch large-scale afforestation programs to restore the valley’s ecological balance.

Teesta River:

Source:
- Originates from the Tso Lhamo Lake in the eastern Himalayas, at an altitude of about 5,330 meters in North Sikkim.
Course:
- Flows southward through Sikkim, forming deep gorges and valleys.
- Enters West Bengal and merges with the Brahmaputra River in Bangladesh.
Length: Approximately 309 km.
Tributaries:
- Rangit is the largest tributary.
Drainage Basin:
- Covers parts of Sikkim, West Bengal, and
Discharge:
- Seasonal variations, with high flows during the monsoon (June–September).

4. Imposing Tariffs on Chinese Imports: An Analysis

Sub : Eco

Sec: External sector

Key Proposal by Donald Trump

Tariffs Up to 60% on Chinese Imports:
- Aim: Reduce the U.S.-China trade deficit.
- Punitive measure to curb China’s subsidization of domestic industries, making Chinese goods more competitive in the U.S. market.
Additional Tariffs on EU Imports:
- 10% tariffs proposed on imports from the European Union.

Potential Impacts on the U.S. Economy

Increase in Domestic Prices and Inflation:
- Imposing tariffs raises the price of imported goods.
- Across-the-board tariffs on consumer goods could increase domestic inflation significantly.
Potential Trade Deficit Reduction:
- Reduced imports might boost the U.S. dollar value, moderating inflation.
Shift to Domestic Production:
- Higher tariffs could make domestic goods more competitive, boosting production and supply.
- Example: A Chinese shirt costing $100 would increase to $110 with a 10% tariff, making U.S. alternatives at $105 more attractive.
Global Trade War Risk:
- Retaliatory tariffs from China and other nations could escalate into a global trade war.
- Negative effects on global commodity prices and inflation could spill over to the U.S. economy.

Potential Impacts on the Chinese Economy

Export Competitiveness:
- Chinese exports may decline due to higher U.S. tariffs.
Government Interventions:
- Subsidies to exporters to offset tariff costs.
- Currency Devaluation to maintain competitiveness
Inflation Risks:
- A devalued currency may lead to domestic inflation in China.
GDP Growth Offsetting Inflation:
- Policy measures like increased stimulus spending and interest rate cuts could boost production and exports, supporting GDP growth despite inflation risks.

Risk of a Global Trade War

Retaliation from Trading Partners:
- Countries affected by U.S. tariffs (e.g., China, EU) could impose their own tariffs on American goods.
- This would reduce global trade volumes, disrupt supply chains, and harm global economic growth.
Impact on Commodity Prices:
- Tariff-induced trade wars could depress global commodity prices.
- Worsened inflation in multiple countries could result from disrupted trade flows.

5. Tamil Nadu Suggests ‘Income Distance’ Norm Revision for 16th Finance Commission

Sub : Polity

Sec: Federalism

Key Proposal to the 16th Finance Commission

New Measure for Per Capita Income:
- Tamil Nadu (TN) proposes shifting the measure of per capita income from nominal terms to purchasing power parity (PPP) for calculating the ‘income distance’ criterion.
- This is the first time a State has recommended such a revision.
Introduction of Contribution to GDP as a Criterion:
- TN advocates adding contribution to the country’s GDP as a new factor for fair tax distribution.

Redistribution Demands

Vertical Devolution (Centre vs. State Split):
- TN and other States request a 50:50 tax pool division between the Centre and States.
- Current split, as per the 15th Finance Commission: 41% for States and 59% for the Centre.
Horizontal Devolution (State-wise Distribution):
- TN suggests a new calculation for income distance, asserting it would secure higher allocations.

Proposed Adjustments to Existing Criteria

Income Distance’ Criterion:
- Current Weight: 45%.
- TN Suggestion: Reduce it to 35%.
‘Population’ Criterion:
- Base Year: Use the 1971 Census instead of the 2011 Census (used by the 15th FC).
- Weight: Increase from 15% to 20%.
‘Demographic Performance’:
- Current Weight: 12.5%.
- TN Suggestion: Raise it to 20%.

Concerns Raised by Tamil Nadu

Reduced Tax Share:
- TN received 33.16% share against the 41% recommended by the 15th Finance Commission.
Cesses and Surcharges:
- 16.83% of Union government’s gross tax revenue comes from cesses and surcharges, which are not shared with States.

Objectives of Tamil Nadu’s Proposals

Ensure a fairer tax devolution model benefiting States with strong economic contributions.
Address perceived inequities in allocation based on outdated criteria like nominal income and population measures.
Secure increased funds to manage demographic shifts, development goals, and fiscal challenges.

6. DIPAM Issues Revised Capital Restructuring Norms for CPSEs

Sub : Eco

Sec: Capital Market

Overview of Revised Guidelines

Issued by the Department of Investment and Public Asset Management (DIPAM) on November 18, 2024.
Applicable to Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSEs) from FY 2024-25.
Excludes public sector banks, public sector insurance companies, and Section 8 companies (non-profit entities).

Key Provisions on Dividend Policy

Minimum Annual Dividend:
- CPSEs must pay a minimum of 30% of net profit (PAT) or 4% of net worth, whichever is higher.
- Financial Sector CPSEs (e.g., NBFCs): Subject to the same minimum dividend norms but limited by extant legal provisions.
Changes from 2016 Guidelines:
- Earlier: 30% of PAT or 5% of net worth, whichever is higher.
- Revised guidelines add specific provisions for financial sector CPSEs.
Interim Dividend:
- CPSEs should consider paying an interim dividend every quarter post-results or at least twice a year.
- Listed CPSEs are mandated to pay at least 90% of the projected annual dividend as interim dividend(s).
Final Dividend Payment:
- Must be paid soon after the Annual General Meeting (AGM), typically in September.

Share Buyback, Bonus Shares, and Splits

Buyback of Shares:
- CPSEs with the following conditions may consider buybacks:

Market price consistently below book value for the last six months.
Net worth of ₹3,000 crore or more.
Cash and bank balance exceeding ₹1,500 crore.

Bonus Shares:
- CPSEs with reserves and surplus 20 times or more than the paid-up equity share capital should consider issuing bonus shares.

Share Splits:
- Listed CPSEs with market price consistently exceeding 150 times the face value over six months may consider splitting shares.
- Cooling-off Period: A minimum gap of three years between two share splits.

Application to Subsidiaries

Applies to CPSE subsidiaries where the parent enterprise holds more than 51% stake.

Role of Monitoring Committee

Committee for Monitoring of Capital Management and Dividend by CPSEs (CMCDC):
- Chaired by Secretary, DIPAM.
- Oversees capital management, restructuring, and dividend policies.

Additional Mandates

Encourages listed CPSEs to declare interim dividends twice or quarterly to enhance regular payouts.
Aligns final dividend payout timelines post AGMs to ensure timely disbursal to shareholders.

Share Buyback

When a company repurchases its own shares from existing shareholders, reducing the total outstanding shares in the market.

Purpose:
- Boost earnings per share (EPS).
- Improve return on equity (ROE).
- Provide an exit option to investors if the company believes its shares are undervalued.

Bonus Shares

Free additional shares issued to existing shareholders in proportion to their holdings, funded by a company’s reserves.

Purpose:
- Reward shareholders without using cash.
- Increase the liquidity of shares in the market.

Stock Splits

Division of existing shares into multiple shares, reducing the per-share price but keeping the total market capitalization unchanged.

Purpose:
- Make shares more affordable for investors.
- Increase share liquidity.

Example: A company with a share price of ₹1,000 announces a 2:1 split, resulting in two shares priced at ₹500 each.

7. India’s Strategy to Eliminate Dog-Mediated Rabies by 2030

Sub : Sci

Sec: Health

Why in News

India is intensifying efforts to eliminate dog-mediated rabies by 2030, a target set to reduce the impact of a disease that remains a significant public health challenge. Recent studies, including one in The Lancet, emphasize the importance of a holistic “One Health” strategy that integrates human and animal health measures to tackle this issue effectively.

Current Situation of Rabies in India:

The Lancet estimated approximately 5,726 human rabies deaths annually in India, despite some progress in recent years.
A large-scale survey involving 3.37 lakh individuals across 15 states revealed an annual dog-bite incidence of 5.6 per 1,000 people, highlighting the persistent risk.
An estimated 9.1 million animal bites occur annually, with 76.8% attributed to dogs.
20.5% of dog-bite victims did not receive any anti-rabies vaccination (ARV). Among those who began the vaccination, nearly 50% failed to complete the course.
These lapses in vaccination adherence contribute to the continued fatalities from rabies, despite overall reductions.

About Rabies:

Rabies has a near 100% fatality rate once symptoms develop, making it a serious public health challenge.
Rabies is a zoonotic viral disease caused by viruses from the Lyssavirus family, which infect a wide range of mammals. The disease primarily targets the central nervous system, and once symptoms appear, rabies is almost 100% fatal.
Dogs are the most common source of rabies transmission to humans, followed by other animals like cats, bats, and wild carnivores. The virus is most commonly transmitted through the bite or scratch of an infected animal, as saliva carries the rabies virus.
Rabies has an incubation period of 1 to 3 months, although this can vary based on factors like the distance of the bite from the brain. Once symptoms manifest, rabies is almost always fatal, with only a handful of survivors worldwide despite intensive medical intervention.
India accounts for about 36% of global rabies deaths, with dog bites being the leading cause.
Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP): It is the most effective treatment for preventing rabies after potential exposure. PEP includes the immediate administration of rabies immunoglobulin (Rabies Ig) and a series of rabies vaccine doses.

One Health Approach:

Experts emphasize the One Health approach to control and eliminate rabies:

Surveillance Systems: Strengthening surveillance for both humans and animals is crucial to identifying rabies cases early.
Post-Exposure Prophylaxis (PEP): Ensuring timely and complete administration of PEP for dog-bite victims is essential to preventing rabies.
Dog Vaccination Programs: Nationwide efforts to vaccinate dogs need to be scaled up to reduce the risk of transmission.
The National Action Plan for Dog-Mediated Rabies Elimination (NAPRE) in India aims to eradicate rabies caused by dog bites by 2030.
The plan employs a One Health approach, integrating human, animal, and environmental health strategies. Key elements include mass vaccination of dogs, increased access to post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) for humans, and public education campaigns.
The initiative is driven by collaboration among various stakeholders, including government ministries, local authorities, and international partners like the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Global Alliance for Rabies Control.

Rabies-Free Cities Initiative:

The Rabies-Free Cities Initiative in India is a targeted effort to eliminate rabies through comprehensive measures like mass vaccination of stray dogs, public awareness campaigns, and responsible pet ownership.
Notably, cities like Pune and Mumbai are leading the initiative with goals set for 2030, focusing on dog sterilization and anti-rabies vaccination drives.
This campaign is part of India’s broader effort to combat rabies, aligning with the National Rabies Control Programme, which aims for widespread vaccination coverage to curb dog-mediated rabies

8. AroTrack: Affordable Water Pollutant Detection by IIT Bombay Scientists

Sub : Sci

Sec: Msc

Why in News

Researchers at the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay (IIT Bombay) have developed a low-cost and portable device called AroTrack. This innovative device can detect harmful water pollutants, including phenol and benzene, offering a breakthrough in environmental monitoring and pollution control.

About AroTrack:

AroTrack is a portable and cost-effective device designed to detect harmful aromatic pollutants in water, such as phenol, benzene, and xylenols.
AroTrack employs proteins commonly found in bacteria that survive in heavily polluted environments. These proteins undergo a selective ATP hydrolysis reaction when exposed to aromatic compounds, resulting in a visible colour change in the solution.
This reaction is detected by the AroTrack device, which utilizes a light-emitting diode (LED)-phototransistor setup to assess changes in the sample’s colour, indicating the presence and concentration of pollutants.
The key biosensor in the device, called Malate operon Regulator (MopR), was developed from a bacterial strain named Acinetobacter calcoaceticus. It is highly sensitive and can operate effectively in complex environmental conditions.
Researchers at IIT Bombay have genetically modified the MopR protein to create a range of sensors capable of detecting different aromatic pollutants, including various benzene and xylenol compounds.
These sensors are fine-tuned for specific molecules through engineered mutations in the protein’s DNA, allowing AroTrack to serve as a versatile tool for monitoring diverse water contaminants.
The design philosophy of AroTrack focuses on accessibility, using in-house 3D printing to manufacture components and basic electronics to keep costs low.
AroTrack’s affordability is notable, with a price of around $50 (less than ₹5,000), making it accessible for rural and low-income regions where expensive laboratory tests are impractical.
AroTrack can detect pollutants in very low concentrations, ranging from 10 to 200 parts per billion, and performs reliably in water temperatures up to 50 degrees Celsius.
It completes tests in under 30 minutes, offering a rapid and efficient solution for water pollution monitoring.
AroTrack’s battery-operated and portable nature makes it ideal for deployment in remote areas lacking access to sophisticated lab facilities.
AroTrack is currently at the prototype stage, demonstrating all key functions. However, additional quality checks and trials are necessary before mass production.

About Aromatic Compounds:

Aromatic compounds are a class of organic molecules characterized by their stability and a ring structure with conjugated double bonds. The most fundamental aromatic compound is benzene, a six-carbon ring with alternating double bonds.

Types of Aromatic Compounds

Benzene and its Derivatives: Benzene is the simplest aromatic compound. It is a volatile, colourless liquid used as a starting material for other chemicals.
Derivatives include toluene (methylbenzene), phenol (hydroxybenzene), and aniline (aminobenzene).
These compounds are employed in the production of plastics, dyes, drugs, and pesticides.
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs): PAHs consist of multiple fused aromatic rings without substituents. Examples include naphthalene (two fused benzene rings), anthracene, and benzopyrene.
PAHs are produced from the incomplete combustion of organic matter, including fossil fuels, wood, and tobacco. They are common in vehicle exhaust, industrial emissions, and smoke.
PAHs are significant air pollutants due to their persistence and potential to cause health issues like respiratory problems and cancer upon long-term exposure.
Heterocyclic Aromatics: These compounds contain one or more atoms other than carbon (like nitrogen, oxygen, or sulphur) in the aromatic ring. Examples include pyridine (nitrogen-containing), furan (oxygen-containing), and thiophene (sulphur-containing).
They are important in pharmaceuticals, dyes, and agrochemicals.

Why Aromatic Compounds are Pollutants

Aromatic compounds, particularly PAHs, are persistent in the environment due to their stability. This makes them accumulate in soil and sediments, leading to long-term contamination.
Many aromatic compounds are toxic, with some like PAHs being carcinogenic and mutagenic. They pose risks to human health through inhalation, ingestion, or dermal contact, especially in urban and industrial areas.
Aromatic pollutants can affect ecosystems by contaminating water sources and impacting plant and animal life. They also contribute to air pollution and are a component of smog, particularly in urban regions.

9. Supreme Court’s Directive on Zydus’ Breast Cancer Biosimilar Sparks Industry Concerns

Sub : Sci

Sec: Health

Why in News

The legal case involving Zydus Life sciences’ biosimilar drug Sigrima, a generic version of Roche’s breast cancer treatment Pertuzumab, has taken a new direction following a Supreme Court decision. The case raises important concerns for the pharmaceutical industry, particularly regarding patent rights and the future of biosimilar drugs.

What are Biosimilars?

Biosimilars are biologic medicines designed to be highly similar to an already approved biologic drug, known as the reference product. These medicines are used to treat a range of conditions, offering alternative options to existing biologics.
Biosimilars are nearly identical to their reference drugs in terms of safety, purity, and potency.
They might have slight variations in inactive components that do not affect clinical outcomes.
Biosimilars are not new medications; they are modelled after existing biologics that have already been thoroughly tested and widely prescribed.
Some well-known reference biologics include etanercept, infliximab, and adalimumab.
The production of biosimilars begins with the same amino acid base as the reference product.
Manufacturing follows a stringent, step-by-step process, ensuring the biosimilar maintains high similarity to the reference drug.
Like the reference products, biosimilars are derived from biological sources, differentiating them from chemically synthesized drugs.
All biosimilars are classified as prescription drugs, requiring medical oversight for their use.

Biosimilars vs. Generic Drugs

While biosimilars and generic drugs serve a similar purpose of providing more affordable alternatives, they differ significantly:
Generics are exact chemical copies of brand-name drugs.
Biosimilars, due to their biological complexity, are not identical but are designed to be highly similar to the original biologic. This is why biosimilars undergo rigorous comparison studies before approval.
Regulation and Approval: To gain approval as a biosimilar, the drug must demonstrate that it is highly similar to the reference biologic in laboratory and clinical settings.
Differences are only allowed if they do not impact the clinical effectiveness or safety of the biosimilar.

10. Exploring Carbon’s Versatility: From Diamonds to Pencil Graphite

Sub: Sci

Sec: Msc

Why in News

Carbon, one of the most fundamental elements, showcases its versatility through everyday objects like pencils and precious diamonds. This discussion highlights key concepts in chemistry and material science, relevant for understanding the varied behaviour of carbon in natural and engineered contexts.

Carbon’s Allotropes and Phases

Carbon exists in different forms called allotropes, which include graphite, graphene, diamond, fullerene, and carbon nanotubes. Each allotrope has distinct properties due to the way carbon atoms are bonded.
Carbon can form various solid phases (e.g., graphite, diamond) depending on temperature and pressure conditions.

About Graphite:

Graphite is a form of carbon where carbon atoms are arranged in layers. Each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms, forming hexagonal sheets.
It consists of multiple layers of graphene (single layers of carbon atoms) stacked loosely on top of each other. The bonds within each sheet are strong, while the bonds between layers are weak, allowing them to slide over each other.

Properties:

Soft and slippery due to weak interlayer bonds.
Good conductor of electricity because of free-moving electrons.
Opaque and black in colour.

Uses:

Core material in pencils due to easy sliding of layers.
Lubricant in machinery because of its slipperiness.
Conductive material in batteries and electrodes.

About Graphene:

Graphene is a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice. It is essentially a monolayer of graphite.

Properties:

Stronger than steel but incredibly lightweight.
Excellent conductor of heat and electricity.
Transparent and flexible.

Uses:

Potential applications in flexible electronics, touchscreens, and solar panels.
Future material for lightweight, durable structures.
Used in scientific research for understanding material properties.

About Diamond:

Diamond is another form of carbon where each carbon atom is tetrahedrally bonded to four other carbon atoms, forming a 3D structure.
The atoms are tightly packed, creating a rigid and transparent crystal lattice.

Properties:

Hardest known natural material.
Excellent insulator of electricity.
High thermal conductivity and transparency.

Uses:

Widely used in cutting tools and abrasives due to its hardness.
Valued in jewellery for its brilliance and rarity.
Industrial applications include heat sinks and high-performance electronics.

About Fullerenes:

Fullerenes are molecules made entirely of carbon atoms. These atoms are arranged in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, or tube. The most well-known fullerene is the buckyball or C₆₀ — a spherical structure consisting of 60 carbon atoms.
Carbon atoms in fullerenes are arranged in hexagons and pentagons, similar to the pattern seen in a soccer ball.
The molecules can form cage-like structures with a high degree of symmetry.

Properties:

High electrical conductivity and unique electronic properties.
High resilience and strength due to the stable carbon-carbon bonds.
Ability to accept and donate electrons easily, making them useful in chemical reactions.

Uses:

Utilized in drug delivery systems due to their hollow structure, which can carry pharmaceutical molecules.
Employed in organic photovoltaics and superconductors.
Potential in advanced materials, lubricants, and catalysts for industrial processes.

About Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs):

Carbon Nanotubes are cylindrical structures made of carbon atoms. They are essentially rolled-up sheets of graphene, forming a hollow tube.
CNTs are classified into two main types: Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes (SWCNTs) and Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes (MWCNTs).
SWCNTs consist of a single graphene layer rolled into a tube, while MWCNTs have multiple concentric layers of graphene.

Properties:

Exceptionally strong and lightweight, with a tensile strength much higher than steel.
Excellent electrical and thermal conductivity, often outperforming metals.
High aspect ratio, making them useful in nanoelectronics and composite materials.

Uses:

Reinforcement in composite materials for sports equipment, aerospace, and automotive industries.
Utilized in nanoelectronics for developing transistors and sensors due to their small size and conductivity.
Applications in medical technology, such as drug delivery, tissue engineering, and biosensors.
Used in water purification and environmental cleanup because of their adsorption capacity and high surface area.

11. The $3.6 billion Chinese-funded Chancay port project in Peru, US concerns around it

Sub : IR

Sec: Places in news

Context:

The Chancay Port in Peru was recently inaugurated by Chinese President Xi Jinping.
The port is envisioned as a starting point for a new land-sea corridor connecting China and Latin America.

Chancay Port Project:

Chancay is a natural deep-water port in Peru, located about 78 km north of Lima.
The $3.6 billion project is funded under China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).
China Ocean Shipping Company (COSCO) owns 60% of the port, with a local company holding the remaining share.
Key trade items here include copper, blueberries and soybeans.

Key benefits:

The port has the capacity to receive vessels of up to 18,000 TEUs (Twenty Foot Equivalent Units), the largest shipping vessels in the world. Currently, to reach South America, bigger cargo ships first go to ports in the United States or Mexico and their goods are offloaded onto smaller ships.
Shortens shipping time between Latin America and Asia from 35 days to 25 days.
The port is expected to generate $4.5 billion in annual economic benefit for Peru, equivalent to 8 percent of the country’s GDP.

12. The dangers of high-altitude sickness

Sub : Sci

Sec: Health

Context:

A trekker from Idukki, Kerala, died in Uttarakhand’s Garur Peak due to respiratory failure in September. Every year, numerous tourists like this succumb to the effects of high-altitude sickness in the Himalayas.

High-altitude sickness:

High-altitude sickness, or Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS), is a condition caused by the body’s inability to adapt to reduced oxygen levels at elevations above 8,000 feet (2,400 m).
Symptoms include headache, nausea, fatigue, and shortness of breath.
If left untreated, it can escalate into:
- High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE): Fluid accumulates in the lungs, worsening breathing difficulties.
- High-Altitude Cerebral Edema (HACE): Fluid collects in the brain, causing confusion, hallucinations, and potentially coma.
Treatment typically involves descent to lower altitudes, supplemental oxygen, and medications like Acetazolamide or Dexamethasone.

Body’s response to High Altitudes:

Decreasing air pressure and oxygen levels at high altitudes lead to hypoxia, a shortage of oxygen in body tissues.
The body tries to adjust to low oxygen levels by increasing the breathing rate, which may cause hyperventilation. Also, the body produces more red blood cells to carry oxygen, thickening the blood and straining the heart.

Infrastructural challenges in Himalayan states:

Most Himalayan regions lack advanced medical facilities for high-altitude ailments.
Leh is a model with specialized infrastructure, but areas like Kinnaur and Lahaul-Spiti remain underserved.
A registration system for tourists entering remote mountain areas could improve monitoring and emergency response.

13. South Africa shows how not to shut down a coal plant

Sub : IR

Sec: Places in news

Context:

The Komati coal-fired power plant, South Africa’s oldest coal-fired power plant, was shut down in 2022 as part of a green energy transition.
The delay in transition however, has led to increased unemployment.
Coal provides 80% of South Africa’s power and the country is among the world’s top 12 largest greenhouse gas emitters. Coal sector is also a major employment provider.

About Komati power plant:

It is 63-year-old power plant in the coal belt in Mpumalanga province of South Africa.
The Komati Power Plant is the first coal plant to be decommissioned under JETP, with more scheduled for closure by 2030.

Just Energy Transition Partnership (JETP):

JETP is a funding initiative aimed at helping developing countries shift from fossil fuel-based energy systems to clean, renewable sources.
It seeks to bridge the gap between wealthier nations and coal-dependent countries, focusing on both the environmental and social aspects of the energy transition.
It was launched at the COP26 in Glasgow with the support of the United Kingdom (UK), the United States (US), France, Germany, and the European Union (EU).
The countries currently involved in Just Energy Transition Partnerships (JETPs) are: Indonesia, Senegal, South Africa, and Vietnam.

South Africa and JETP:

South Africa was the first country to enter into a JETP at the COP26 in Glasgow.
South Africa is one of the key countries benefiting from the JETP and has received $13.6 billion in grants and loans to assist with its energy transition.