Daily Prelims Notes 22 January 2025

January 23, 2025
Posted by: OptimizeIAS Team
Category: DPN

Daily Prelims Notes

22 January 2025

Table Of Contents

1. Trump declares end to U.S. citizenship by birth

Sub : Polity

Sec: Constitution

Context: – On January 20, 2025, U.S. President Donald Trump signed an executive order aiming to end birthright citizenship for children born in the United States to non-citizen parents, including those on temporary visas such as H-1B.

This move challenges the long-standing interpretation of the 14th Amendment, which grants citizenship to all individuals born on U.S. soil.

Citizenship Provisions: India vs. the United States

United States:

Birthright Citizenship (Jus Soli): The U.S. follows the principle of jus soli, meaning any person born on U.S. soil is automatically granted citizenship, regardless of their parents’ immigration status. This is enshrined in the 14th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution.
Naturalization: Individuals not born in the U.S. can acquire citizenship through a legal process called naturalization, which includes requirements such as residency, language proficiency, and knowledge of U.S. history and government.

India:

Part II of the Indian constitution (Article 5 to 11) deals with the citizenship provisions in India.

Citizenship by Birth
- 26 Jan 1950 – 1 July 1987: A person born in India is a citizen, irrespective of parents’ nationality.
- 1 July 1987 – 3 Dec 2004: Citizenship is granted if at least one parent is an Indian citizen at the time of birth.
- Post 3 Dec 2004: Citizenship is granted if both parents are Indian citizens, or one is an Indian citizen and the other is not an illegal migrant.
Citizenship by Registration

Granted by the Central Government to:

Persons of Indian origin residing in India for 7 years preceding the application.
Spouses of Indian citizens residing in India for 7 years.
Minor children of Indian citizens.
Citizenship by Acquisition
- When foreign territory becomes part of India, residents of that territory become Indian citizens from a date specified by the government (e.g., Pondicherry via the Citizenship (Pondicherry) Order, 1962).
Citizenship by Descent
- 26 Jan 1950 – 10 Dec 1992: A person born outside India becomes a citizen if the father is an Indian citizen.
- Post 10 Dec 1992: Either parent must be an Indian citizen.
- Post 3 Dec 2004: Citizenship requires registration at the Indian Consulate within a year of birth or with Central Government approval after the period.
Citizenship by Naturalization

Granted to applicants who:

Renounce any other citizenship upon application acceptance.
Reside in India continuously for 12 months before application.
Reside in India for 11 years in aggregate within the 14 years preceding the 12-month period.

Key Differences between Indian and U.S.A Citizenship:

Principle of Citizenship: The U.S. primarily follows jus soli (right of the soil), granting citizenship based on birthplace, whereas India follows a modified approach, granting citizenship by birth only when at least one parent is an Indian citizen.

Dual Citizenship: The U.S. permits dual citizenship under certain circumstances, allowing individuals to hold citizenship in more than one country. In contrast, India does not allow dual citizenship; acquiring foreign citizenship leads to the automatic loss of Indian citizenship.

Constitutional Provisions: In the U.S., birthright citizenship is constitutionally protected under the 14th Amendment. In India, citizenship provisions are governed by the Citizenship Act of 1955, and the Constitution grants Parliament the authority to regulate citizenship laws.

2. What is the status of the Smart Cities Mission?

Sub : Schemes

Sec: Economy

About Smart Cities Mission

The Smart Cities Mission (SCM) is a flagship urban renewal and retrofitting program launched by the Government of India on June 25, 2015. It is implemented by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) with the objective of driving sustainable and inclusive development in selected cities to create models of urban innovation and efficiency.

Key Features of the Smart Cities Mission:

Objectives:
- Enhance urban living quality by promoting core infrastructure.
- Provide a clean and sustainable environment with the help of technology-driven solutions.
- Transform cities into economic hubs while ensuring inclusive growth.
Key Components:
The mission focuses on two major components:
- Pan-City Solutions:
  Use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to improve service delivery and governance. Examples include:
  - Intelligent traffic management systems.
  - Waste management solutions.
  - Smart water and electricity systems.
- Area-Based Development (ABD):
  Targeted interventions within a specific area of the city through:
  - Retrofitting: Infrastructure upgrades without significant alteration to existing structures.
  - Redevelopment: Demolishing and rebuilding entire areas with new layouts and structures.
  - Greenfield Development: Developing vacant land with innovative planning, such as smart industrial parks or residential areas.

Governance was structured around Special Purpose Vehicles (SPVs) registered under the Companies Act, bypassing local governments to adopt corporate efficiency.

Progress in Shimla (Case Study):

Shimla joined the mission after a legal challenge in the Himachal Pradesh High Court. Its smart city proposal included:

Retrofitting Projects:
- Improving pedestrian crossings and vehicular mobility on circular roads.
- Developing three transport corridors.
- Implementing underground ducting, parking solutions, and stormwater management to enhance water security.
Redevelopment Projects:
- Replacing unsafe, dilapidated structures in Lower Bazar, Ganj Bazar, and Krishnanagar with resilient, earthquake-safe buildings to boost tourism.
- Eco-Tourism Focus: Promoting eco-adventure tourism.

Outcomes in Shimla:

Core redevelopment projects (Lower Bazar, etc.) were abandoned.
Non-motorized mobility projects were neglected.
Funds were misallocated to trivial items like flower pots (₹2 crore) and non-functional escalators, which also obstructed valley views.
Traffic congestion has worsened, with no significant improvement in urban mobility.

3. Need Policy for Affordable Bioethanol

Sub: Env

Sec: Sustainable Dev

Why in News?

Honda Motor Co. Ltd.’s has urged the Indian government to create policies to make bioethanol more affordable, addressing its economic viability and promoting its adoption for carbon neutrality goals.

Context

India is advancing toward carbon neutrality by focusing on bioethanol fuels and renewable energy. However, high costs of bioethanol and low fuel efficiency hinder its widespread adoption, requiring policy intervention for affordability.

Honda can leverage its Brazil’s experience, since Honda launched CBF300 Flex Fuel in India to promote ethanol-based mobility solutions.

Key Highlights

Advantages of Bioethanol

Reduces carbon emissions effectively.
Provides socio-economic benefits by supporting rural communities and farmers.
Compatible with existing gasoline distribution infrastructure, ensuring easy availability.
Farmers’ upliftment: Ethanol production benefits rural farmers.
Helps India achieve carbon neutrality commitments while addressing fuel affordability.

Challenges Identified

High running costs:

Current price of E100 ethanol fuel: ₹95/litre.
Needs reduction to ₹65/litre for competitive pricing against gasoline.
Low fuel efficiency of ethanol-based vehicles raises costs for users.
Policy Recommendations
Price Reduction Measures:
- Lower taxes on ethanol to make it affordable.
- Establish a government mechanism to maintain affordability.
Improving Fuel Efficiency:
- OEMs must develop vehicles with enhanced ethanol mileage.
Incentivize Adoption:
- Encourage flex-fuel vehicle production and deployment.
- Ethanol as Complement to Electrification
- Both flex-fuel vehicles and electric vehicles (EVs) are essential for India’s long-term decarbonization goals.
- Renewable energy adoption will boost the eco-friendliness of EVs.

What is Bioethanol?

Bioethanol is an alcohol-based biofuel produced through the fermentation of sugars derived from crops like sugarcane, corn, wheat, and barley. It is a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels, as it is made from biomass that can be replenished over time.

4. Trump effectively pulls U.S. out of global corporate tax deal

Sub: IR

Sec: Int Groupings

Why in News?

Former U.S. President Donald Trump declared the 2021 Global Corporate Tax Deal “has no force or effect” in the United States.
This decision effectively withdraws the U.S. from the OECD-led agreement involving 140 countries, potentially reviving digital service levies targeting American firms.

Context

The global corporate tax deal aimed to:

Establish a 15% global minimum tax rate.
Address tax base erosion and profit shifting.
Share taxing rights on multinational companies, particularly in nations where their products are sold (Pillar 1 framework).

Trump challenges these goals, while citing protection of American companies and economic sovereignty.

Key Highlights

U.S. Policy Stance
- The U.S. maintains a 10% global minimum tax under Trump’s 2017 Tax Cuts and Jobs Act.
- The U.S. Congress did not approve the 15% global minimum tax.
- Trump directed the Treasury to implement protective measures against foreign tax practices.
- Countries adopting the 15% tax (e.g., EU, Britain) could impose a “top-up tax” on U.S. firms paying lower rates.
- The memorandum emphasized economic sovereignty and retaining U.S. competitiveness in the global market.
Impact on Digital Services Taxes (DST)
- Without U.S. participation in the Pillar 1 framework, countries like Italy, France, Britain, Spain, and Turkey might reinstate unilateral DSTs targeting U.S. firms like Meta and Apple.
Historical Context
- The OECD-led negotiations aimed to curb tax competition and prevent multinational firms from exploiting low-tax jurisdictions.
- In 2021, then-Treasury Secretary Janet Yellen endorsed the global deal to ensure fair taxation.

Conclusion

Trump’s withdrawal from the global tax deal prioritizes U.S. sovereignty but raises concerns over potential trade tensions and economic disruptions. The decision reopens debates on the global tax structure, potentially reviving unilateral DSTs and risking retaliatory measures.

What is the Global Minimum Tax (GMT)?

GMT is a standard minimum tax rate applied to the corporate profits of large multinational enterprises (MNEs) worldwide.

Objective: To curb tax competition among nations and reduce profit-shifting by companies to low-tax jurisdictions (tax havens).

Rate: The OECD’s proposal sets a minimum rate of 15% on foreign profits of large MNEs.

Key Features of the OECD Plan

Two-Pillar Framework:
- Pillar 1: Redistributes a portion of taxing rights from large MNEs to countries where their customers and users are located.
Covers only the most profitable MNEs.
Aims to replace unilateral Digital Services Taxes (DSTs) and resolve disputes.
Pillar 2: Establishes the 15% minimum tax rate.
Targets MNEs with global revenues exceeding 750 million euros.
Allows countries to impose a “top-up tax” on profits taxed below this rate in other jurisdictions.

Digital Services Taxes (DST)

DSTs are levies on revenues earned by companies from providing digital services like online advertising, digital marketplaces, and user data monetization.
Purpose: They address the challenge of taxing digital businesses that derive significant profits from a country without a physical presence there.
Applicability: Typically targets large multinational companies, particularly in the tech sector.

GAFA Tax

What It Stands For: GAFA refers to Google, Amazon, Facebook, and Apple, representing the major tech companies often targeted by these taxes.

French Implementation:

In 2019, France introduced a 3% GAFA tax on revenues earned from digital services within its borders by companies. This became a model for other countries considering similar taxes.

Global Pushback: U.S.-based companies criticized the tax as discriminatory, leading to trade tensions.

Equalisation Levy (India)

Introduced in 2016 to tax online advertising services provided by foreign companies to Indian businesses. In 2020, extended to cover e-commerce operators earning revenue from India without physical operations in the country. A 2% levy applies to revenues from online goods and services.

Objective: Address tax avoidance by tech companies that use cross-border digital models to avoid paying taxes in India.

5. Trump’s exit from Paris Agreement ‘threatens’ future of renewable energy

Sub: Env

Sec: Int Conventions

Context:

On the first day of his second Presidency, Donald Trump signed an executive order to withdraw the United States from the 2015 Paris Climate Agreement.
The Paris Agreement is a global treaty aimed at limiting global warming to well below 2°C, ideally to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels, by reducing global greenhouse gas emissions.

Previous Attempt to Withdraw:

In 2016, following Trump’s election victory, he expressed his intent to pull out of the Paris Agreement. However, the S. did not formally exit due to the specific rules of the agreement, which did not allow immediate withdrawal.
The S. can now exit within a year of officially notifying the United Nations, which Trump did on his first day in office during his second term.

Implications of U.S. Withdrawal:

The U.S. is the second-largest emitter of greenhouse gases in the world. Its withdrawal from the agreement could hinder efforts to reduce global emissions and combat climate change.
Despite the formal withdrawal, S. representatives have actively participated in climate discussions and conferences.
Experts are concerned that under Trump’s leadership, the S. may prevent its representatives from participating in future climate negotiations, which could affect global climate diplomacy.

Impact on Renewable Energy and Investment:

Trump has been a strong supporter of oil and gas drilling, which poses a challenge to global renewable energy development.
Experts are concerned about a reduction in investments in renewable technologies, especially from multilateral organizations such as the World Bank, where the U.S. holds significant influence.
The withdrawal of U.S. support could lead to decreased climate financing, especially for developing countries that depend on international funds for clean energy development.

Environmental Consequences:

Experts warn that the Trump administration’s policies, including promoting fossil fuel industries, could lead to exploitation of sensitive ecological regions.
For example, Alaska and other fragile ecosystems could face further environmental degradation, negatively affecting global climate stability and biodiversity.

6. Antivenoms in India

Sub: Sci

Sec: Health

Why in News

A recent snakebite tragedy involving a five-year-old girl in Karnataka highlighted India’s ongoing snakebite crisis. With an estimated 58,000 deaths annually, India has been termed the ‘snakebite capital of the world.’ This issue emphasizes the need for accessible and effective antivenoms, innovative treatments, and improved healthcare infrastructure.

What are Antivenoms?

Antivenoms, or antivenins, are life-saving medicines used to neutralize snake venom.
They are produced by:
- Injecting small amounts of snake venom into animals like horses.
- Harvesting the antibodies generated as part of the animals’ immune response.
These antibodies neutralize the venom toxins, allowing the body to recover. However, identifying the snake species and the quantity of venom injected is critical for treatment success.
The antivenom production process was pioneered by French physician Albert Calmette in the 1890s.

Snake venom is a complex cocktail of toxic proteins evolved to immobilize prey and defend against threats.
Toxins and their Effects:
- Hemotoxins: Destroy blood cells and disrupt clotting.
- Neurotoxins: Block nerve signals, causing paralysis.
- Cytotoxins: Dissolve tissue at the bite site.
Antivenoms specifically bind to these toxins, rendering them harmless until the body eliminates them.

Several Indian companies, such as Bharat Serums and Vaccines, Haffkine Bio-Pharmaceutical Corporation, and ViNS Bioproducts, produce antivenoms using this method.
The Irula tribe in Tamil Nadu plays a crucial role by safely extracting venom from snakes, ensuring a steady supply for antivenom production.

Polyvalent Antivenoms (PVAs):

Polyvalent antivenoms (PVAs) are therapeutic agents designed to neutralize the venoms of multiple snake species.
These are immunoglobulin preparations capable of counteracting the toxic effects of venoms from various snake species.
They are particularly valuable in areas with high snake diversity, where identifying the exact species responsible for a bite can be challenging.
Production Process:
- Venoms are extracted from multiple snake species known to cause significant envenomation in a particular region.
Animals, commonly horses, are immunized with incremental doses of these venoms, prompting the production of specific antibodies. After achieving a sufficient antibody response, blood is collected from the immunized animals.
The serum containing the antibodies is processed to isolate and purify the immunoglobulins, which are then formulated into the final antivenom product.
PVAs provide a practical solution in regions with multiple venomous snake species, especially when the offending snake is not identified.
Producing a single PVA is often more feasible than developing multiple monovalent antivenoms, each targeting a specific snake species.
Studies have indicated that certain PVAs can maintain their pharmacological stability and venom-neutralizing ability for extended periods, even decades post-expiry, suggesting the potential for longer

India’s Snakebite Crisis:

India is home to over 300 snake species, of which more than 60 are venomous.
The Big Four snakes—Indian cobra (Naja naja), common krait (Bungarus caeruleus), Russell’s viper (Daboia russelii), and saw-scaled viper (Echis species)—cause the majority of snakebite deaths.
Other venomous species, such as king cobras, hump-nosed vipers, and pit vipers, remain outside the coverage of polyvalent antivenoms (PVAs), leading to ineffective treatment and poor outcomes.
A 2020 study estimated 1.2 million deaths and three times as many disabilities due to snakebites in India between 2001 and 2014.

Advancements in Antivenom Technology:

Researchers are developing synthetic antivenoms using recombinant DNA technology, eliminating the need for animal-derived components.
A team led by Nobel laureate David Baker used Artificial Intelligence (AI) to design synthetic antivenoms with greater efficacy and safety.
Indian scientists at IISc Bengaluru, are mapping venom compositions to create tailored antivenoms for specific regions and species.
Rapid diagnostic tools are being developed to identify venom types, enabling precise and timely treatment.

Indian Cobra (Naja naja):

Recognizable by the distinctive hood mark, often resembling spectacles.
Primarily neurotoxic, affecting the nervous system and potentially leading to respiratory failure.
Widespread across India, inhabiting forests, plains, and urban areas.
Generally shy; raises hood when threatened.

Common Krait (Bungarus caeruleus):

Glossy black or blue-black body with thin white bands.
Contains potent neurotoxins causing muscle paralysis; bites are often painless, leading to delayed treatment.
Prefers fields, low-lying scrublands, and human dwellings.
Nocturnal; seldom aggressive during the day but more active and potentially dangerous at night.

Russell’s Viper (Daboia russelii):

Stout body with a series of dark brown spots bordered by white or yellow.
Hemotoxic, leading to blood clotting disorders, internal bleeding, and acute kidney injury.
Found in grasslands, bushlands, and agricultural fields.
Quick-tempered; hisses loudly when threatened and can strike rapidly.

Saw-Scaled Viper (Echis carinatus):

Small, stocky snake with a pale brown body and darker brown patterns; keeled scales produce a rasping sound when rubbed together.
Potent hemotoxin causing coagulopathy, leading to internal bleeding.
Arid regions, scrublands, and rocky terrains.
Highly irritable; assumes a side-winding motion and produces a characteristic ‘sizzling’ sound when agitated.

7. Breakthrough Discovery: Pressure Sensor Found in Fat Tissue

Sub: Sci

Sec: Health

Why in News

Scientists have recently made a groundbreaking discovery of a pressure sensor in fat tissue, revolutionizing our understanding of how mechanical forces influence biological processes. This finding, highlighted by Nobel laureate Ardem Patapoutian, raises new questions about the role of mechanical stimuli in fat and stem cell behaviour, with significant implications for future research.

PIEZO proteins:

They are a family of large, mechanically activated ion channels that play a crucial role in converting mechanical stimuli into electrochemical signals within cells.
These proteins are highly conserved across various species, including animals and plants.
PIEZO proteins are substantial transmembrane proteins, each comprising approximately 2,500 amino acids and containing numerous transmembrane regions.
They assemble into homo trimeric complexes with a distinctive three-bladed, propeller-shaped architecture.
PIEZO1: Encoded by the PIEZO1 gene, this protein is involved in various physiological processes, including the regulation of vascular tone and blood pressure.
PIEZO2: Encoded by the PIEZO2 gene, this protein is essential for the senses of touch, pain, and proprioception—the ability to sense body position and movement.
Functions: PIEZO proteins are integral to mechanosensory transduction, allowing cells to respond to mechanical forces by opening ion channels that permit the flow of ions, thereby generating electrical signals.

About PIEZO Ion Channels:

PIEZO ion channels are a class of mechanosensitive proteins that help organisms sense mechanical pressure.
They were first discovered in 2010 by Nobel laureate Ardem Patapoutian and Bertrand Coste at the Scripps Research Institute, California.
Mechanism of Action: PIEZO channels open in response to mechanical stimuli, allowing ions to flow through and generate electric signals. These signals enable neurons to communicate with each other, forming the basis of sensory perception.
The two discovered channels, PIEZO1 and PIEZO2, derive their name from the Greek word piezi (pressure). Since their discovery, these channels have been linked to vital functions, including:
- Sensing touch and pain.
- Proprioception (body position awareness).
- Interoception (internal body state perception).
- Regulating respiration, urination, blood vessel formation, bone density, and wound healing.
Pressure Sensor in Fat Tissue: A preprint study from Patapoutian’s lab highlights the role of PIEZO2 in sensing mechanical changes in adipose (fat) tissue, marking a significant advancement in understanding fat-brain communication.
Research Methodology: Mice adipose tissues were injected with cholera toxin-B (CTB) linked to glowing molecules to isolate sensory neurons. These neurons contained high levels of PIEZO2, confirming its role in detecting pressure.
PIEZO2 detects mechanical changes in adipose tissues, which are communicated to the brain via sensory afferents (neurons connected to the spinal cord’s dorsal root ganglia).
PIEZO channels are essential for maintaining intestinal structure and homeostasis. Their dysfunction is linked to diseases like inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and cancer, offering new avenues for targeted therapies.

8. What do draft data protection rules state?

Sub: Sci

Sec: Awareness in IT and Computer

Context:

Recently, the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) released the draft rules for implementing the Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, 2023.
This comes 16 months after the Act was notified in August 2023, and the government is seeking feedback on the draft rules.
There are concerns about the limited public disclosure of the draft rules and the lack of mechanisms for submitting counter-comments.

Data Localisation Mandate:

Definition: Data localisation refers to the requirement that data must be stored and processed within a specific jurisdiction, limiting its flow across borders.
Changes in Draft Rules: The draft rules introduce a data localisation mandate that extends beyond the scope of the original DPDP Act. While the Act allows data transfer restrictions to certain countries, the new rules propose forming a committee to determine which classes of data cannot be exported from India.
Targeted Entities: The data localisation mandate applies to Significant Data Fiduciaries (SDFs), which include major tech companies such as Meta, Google, Apple, Microsoft, and Amazon. These entities are defined based on the volume and sensitivity of the personal data they handle.
The government plans to provide a two-year timeline for the industry to implement systems for compliance with the localisation mandate.

Purpose of Data Localisation:

The primary reason behind data localisation is to address challenges faced by law enforcement agencies in accessing cross-border data during investigations.
For instance, the Reserve Bank of India implemented a similar mandate in 2018 requiring payment data operators to store data domestically.

Operational Challenges:

Industry experts, including Aparajita Bharti, highlight that data localisation could present significant operational challenges, especially for large tech firms and start-ups.
Managing different data sets and ensuring compliance across multiple jurisdictions can increase operational costs and complicate business operations.

Fear of Executive Overreach:

Section 36 of the DPDP Act, along with Rule 22, grants the government sweeping powers to demand information from data fiduciaries or intermediaries in the interest of national security, sovereignty, or integrity of India.
Experts worry that this could lead to misuse, enabling surveillance or suppression of dissent.
This could lead to compromising end-to-end encryption for services like WhatsApp, a concern raised by Meta in 2021 regarding the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules.
Rule 22 further prohibits companies from disclosing government demands for information if it could jeopardize national security or sovereignty. This provision raises alarms over transparency and accountability.

Justice A.P. Shah Committee:

The 2012 recommendations of the Group of Experts on Privacy, led by Justice A.P. Shah, suggested that individuals subject to data interception should be notified.
This contrast is evident in the DPDP Act, where there is a lack of such safeguards, potentially allowing the misuse of interception orders by authorities under political influence.