Daily Prelims Notes 25 October 2024
Daily Prelims Notes
25 October 2024
Table Of Contents
- Spraying diamond dust to cool Earth: What a new study proposes, despite ‘geoengineering’ concerns
- How archaeologists unearthed ancient cities in Central Asia’s mountains
- Retro bonds return from the ‘80s to speed up debt reworks, but at a cost
- Russia’s move to ratify North Korea defence pact irks Seoul
- Justice Sanjiv Khanna Appointed as the 51st Chief Justice of India
- ICCR Hosts Conference Advocating Classical Language Status for Pali
- U.S. National Security Memorandum on Artificial Intelligence: Framework for Safeguards and Strategic Edge
1. Spraying diamond dust to cool Earth: What a new study proposes, despite ‘geoengineering’ concerns
Sub: Geo
Sec: Climatology
Context:
- A recent study suggests spraying millions of tonnes of diamond dust in the Earth’s upper atmosphere annually to cool the planet and combat global warming.
- Other compounds—sulphur, calcium, aluminium, and silicon—have also been proposed to reflect solar radiation and reduce Earth’s temperature.
- Alternative proposal: Installing space-based mirrors to reflect sunlight.
What is Geoengineering?
- It refers to large-scale efforts to alter Earth’s climate to mitigate global warming.
- Two main types:
- Solar Radiation Management (SRM): Reflects sunlight away from Earth.
- Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR): Removes CO₂ from the atmosphere.
Current Geoengineering Efforts:
- Solar Radiation Management (SRM): Inspired by volcanic eruptions (e.g., 1991 Mount Pinatubo) that release sulphur dioxide, forming particles that reflect sunlight.
- The study found diamond dust could be more effective than other materials in SRM.
- To lower temperatures by 1.6°C, approximately 5 million tonnes of diamonds would need to be dispersed annually.
- Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): Captures CO₂ at the source and stores it underground, currently the most-used method.
- Carbon Capture, Utilisation, and Storage (CCUS): Uses some captured CO₂ in industries and stores the rest.
- Direct Air Capture (DAC): “Artificial trees” extract CO₂ from ambient air, then store or utilize it.
- Ocean fertilization or ocean nourishment:
- Ocean fertilization is a type of climate engineering based on the purposeful introduction of nutrients to the upper ocean to increase marine food production and to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
- A number of techniques, including fertilization by iron, urea and phosphorus have been proposed.
- Soil carbon sequestration (SCS)
- Soils can serve as a sink for carbon dioxide since atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide have crossed 410 parts per million and oceans are already turning acidic.
- Carbon sequestration in soils has the potential to offset GHG emissions from fossil fuels by up to 15% annually.
- Soil organic carbon (SOC) comes from plants, animals, microbes, leaves and wood, mostly found in the first metre or so.
- There are many conditions and processes that determine changes to SOC content including temperature, rainfall, vegetation, soil management and land-use change.
- Stratospheric aerosol injection (SAI)
- SAI is the main type of solar radiation management (SRM) .
- In the case of SAI, gases are pumped into the stratosphere to reflect some of the sun’s heat, mimicking an effect that happens naturally in a strong volcanic eruption.
- Scale of SAI makes its governance difficult — implementing it in one country can trigger rain and extreme weather across borders. Lack of public support might be the biggest hurdle.
- Marine cloud brightening (MCB)
- MCB involves reflecting sunlight away from the earth in some way. In this case, sea salt or other particles are sprayed into marine clouds to make them thicker and more reflective.
- Cirrus cloud thinning (CCT)
- CCT is almost the opposite of marine cloud brightening. High-altitude Cirrus clouds are thin and whispy, so they don’t reflect much solar radiation back into space, and instead trap long-wave radiation on earth.
- CCT proposes thinning them further through cloud seeding, letting more long-wave radiation escape.
Challenges and Concerns:
- Technical and Financial Challenges:
- SRM has high technological and financial demands.
- Using CCS extensively could cost around US$ 30 trillion more by 2050 than prioritizing renewables and energy efficiency.
- Potential Risks:
- SRM could unintentionally disrupt weather patterns, affect rainfall, and impact agriculture and biodiversity.
- Heavy reliance on CCS alone may be unsustainable without an adequate number of safe underground storage sites.
Urgency and Emission Goals:
- Rising Global Temperatures: Despite efforts, temperatures are 1.2°C above pre-industrial levels, with 2023 around 1.45°C warmer.
- Paris Agreement Target: Aims to limit warming below 1.5°C but achieving this requires a 43% cut in emissions by 2030, while current actions may only achieve a 2% reduction.
- Role of CCS/CDR: These technologies are now viewed as essential to any scenario aiming to meet the 1.5°C or 2°C targets.
2. How archaeologists unearthed ancient cities in Central Asia’s mountains
Sub : History
Sec: Ancient India
Context:
- In 2015, archaeologist Michael Frachetti learned from a local official about ancient ceramics near his excavation site in southeastern Uzbekistan. This led to the discovery of Tugunbulak, a vast fortified city dating to a medieval empire.
- Frachetti’s team spent nearly a decade mapping Tugunbulak and Tashbulak, another high-altitude site in Uzbekistan.
Key Findings
- Mountain Trade Routes: The discoveries at these high-altitude sites (about 6,500 feet above sea level) challenge the traditional view that the Silk Road trade routes stayed in lowland areas. These mountain routes reveal a more intricate Silk Road network.
- Centers of Industry: Surrounded by iron-rich Malguzar Mountains, Tugunbulak and Tashbulak may have been centres for weapons manufacturing. Excavations have uncovered pottery, coins, and jewellery, suggesting a vibrant trade for weapons and other items.
- Complexity of Nomadic and Urban Life: The findings blur the lines between nomadic and urban societies, showing that medieval nomads also established substantial settlements.
The Role of the Silk Road:
- Initiated by Chinese explorer Zhang Qian, the Silk Road connected East and West Asia from the 2nd century B.C. to the 15th century A.D.
- Central Asian cities like Samarkand and Bukhara were pivotal hubs, but the USSR’s historical narrative largely overlooked contributions from medieval nomadic cultures. Sites like Tashbulak and Tugunbulak illustrate these cultures’ urban influence.
Challenges in Exploring Tugunbulak:
- Tugunbulak, a 390-acre area, was difficult to map due to its size and Uzbekistan’s strict drone regulations. After negotiations, Frachetti’s team obtained permission for limited drone use.
- Initial drone photography faced challenges with high winds and subpar image quality, and ground-penetrating radar was impractical for such a large site.
How Lidar Enhanced the Research:
- In 2022, Frachetti returned with a lidar-equipped drone. Lidar, or “light detection and ranging,” measures distances using laser pulses, creating precise topographical maps.
- Over 22 flights, the team collected 421 million data points, revealing structures like walls, roads, and buildings. Data analysis with a custom algorithm by computer scientist Tao Ju helped interpret these findings.
- While lidar provided critical insights, traditional excavation methods remain essential to fully understand these sites.
3. Retro bonds return from the ‘80s to speed up debt reworks, but at a cost
Sub : IR
Sec : Int grouping
Context:
- The recent wave of sovereign debt defaults has revived interest in complex securities known as State Contingent Debt Instruments (SCDIs).
About State Contingent Debt Instruments (SCDIs):
- State Contingent Debt Instruments (SCDIs) are financial instruments issued by a government that have repayment obligations linked to specific economic conditions or performance
- These instruments emerged in the 1980s during the Latin American debt crisis.
- They are designed to expedite debt restructurings by linking bond payouts to a country’s economic or fiscal performance.
- SCDIs often incorporate economic growth metrics, such as GDP, but can also be tied to various revenue streams.
- Countries such as Ukraine and Sri Lanka have utilized SCDIs to navigate challenging debt negotiations, offering investors potential returns tied to the country’s economic recovery.
Benefits of SCDIs:
- Crisis management: Provides a buffer during economic crises, reducing the immediate fiscal pressure. SCDIs can facilitate smoother negotiations between cash-strapped nations and bondholders.
- Incentivizes growth: Encourages better economic performance, as governments have a vested interest in achieving economic targets.
- Investor appeal: Unlike traditional sovereign bonds, which offer fixed interest payments, SCDIs may yield higher returns if a country’s economy outperforms expectations. This characteristic can entice investors, potentially aiding in the resolution of debt crises.
Challenges and Concerns:
- Higher borrowing costs: Reliance on SCDIs could increase future borrowing costs, as some investors may hesitate to purchase bonds that carry uncertain payout structures.
- A 2022 report by the Bank for International Settlements, reveals that governments often face higher premiums on these instruments, ranging from 4.24% to 12.5% above typical liquidity and default premiums.
Case Studies: Zambia and Ukraine
- Zambia’s recent restructuring showcases the importance of SCDIs in providing relief while promoting economic development. The Zambian government linked repayment obligations to its debt-carrying capacity, with assessments guided by the IMF rather than government data to enhance credibility.
- Ukraine’s swift debt restructuring during wartime illustrates the practical application of SCDIs. By offering GDP-linked bonds, Ukraine incentivized investors to exchange defaulted bonds for newer instruments, which could yield greater returns if the economy rebounds.
4. Russia’s move to ratify North Korea defence pact irks Seoul
Sub : IR
Sec : Places in news
Context:
- Russia recently took significant steps to ratify a key defence treaty with North Korea.
- This pact, which includes provisions for mutual assistance in the face of aggression, was unanimously approved by Russia’s Lower House of Parliament.
- The treaty will now proceed to the Upper House, the Federation Council, for final approval.
Concerns over troop deployments:
- In light of the ratification, South Korea expressed serious concerns regarding the potential deployment of North Korean troops to support Russian military efforts in Ukraine.
- According to South Korea’s spy agency, thousands of North Korean soldiers are currently undergoing training in Russia, and there are indications that more troops could be sent to the frontlines in Ukraine by December.
South Korea’s response:
- South Korean President Yoon Suk Yeol emphasized that the country would not remain passive in response to the situation.
Russia-North Korea relations:
- Historically, North Korea and Russia (then the Soviet Union) were allies during the Cold War, sharing ideological ties.
- After the Soviet Union’s collapse, relations became strained but maintained a level of diplomatic engagement.
Current scenario:
- The partnership between Pyongyang and Moscow has noticeably strengthened since Russia’s military offensive in Ukraine began in 2022.
- Many in the West believe that North Korea is already supplying weapons to Russia to support its military efforts.
- The ratification of the defence pact between Russia and North Korea, along with reported troop movements, indicates a deepening alliance that raises concerns for South Korea and the international community.
5. Justice Sanjiv Khanna Appointed as the 51st Chief Justice of India
Sub : Polity
Sec: Constitution
Why in News
Justice Sanjiv Khanna has been appointed as the next Chief Justice of India (CJI) and will assume office on November 11, 2024. The Union government has officially notified his appointment following the recommendation by the current Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud, who will retire on November 10, 2024.
Appointment of CJI:
Article 124 of the Constitution of India provides for the manner of appointing judges to the Supreme Court (SC). But there is no specific provision in the Constitution for appointing the Chief Justice.
CJI should be the senior most judge of the Supreme Court (SC). Law Minister has to seek recommendation of the outgoing CJI for appointment of new CJI at an appropriate time.
In case of doubt about the fitness of the senior-most Judge to hold office of CJI consultation with other Judges under Article 124(2) to be made.
Law Minister then puts up recommendation to Prime Minister (PM) who will advise the President on appointment.
Seniority at the apex court is determined not by age, but by the date a judge was appointed to the SC.
If two judges are elevated to the Supreme Court on the same day,
(1) the one who was sworn in first as a judge would trump another;
(2) if both were sworn in as judges on the same day, the one with more years of high court service would ‘win’ in the seniority stakes;
(3) an appointment from the bench would ‘trump’ in seniority an appointee from the bar.
Tenure:
Once appointed, the Chief Justice remains in office until the age of 65 years.
Article 124(4) of Constitution of India provides that a SC Judge including CJI can be moved only through a process of impeachment by Parliament.
Role and Functions of the Chief Justice of India:
- Presiding over the Supreme Court and leading judicial proceedings.
- Acting as the administrative head of the Supreme Court.
- Allocating cases and forming benches to ensure the effective functioning of the court.
- Overseeing the functioning of subordinate and high courts across India.
The CJI has the authority to take Suo motu cognizance (acting without a formal complaint) of matters that require urgent judicial intervention.
The CJI heads the Collegium, a body of senior judges responsible for the appointment and transfer of judges in higher judiciary. This system was established by various Supreme Court rulings and is not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution.
6. ICCR Hosts Conference Advocating Classical Language Status for Pali
Sub: History
Sec: Art and Culture
Why in News
The Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) organized a significant conference in Colombo, Sri Lanka, focused on advocating for the recognition of Pali as a classical language in India. This gathering brought together Buddhist scholars and monks from countries such as Sri Lanka, Nepal, Myanmar, and Bangladesh, highlighting Pali’s cultural and religious importance in Buddhist traditions.
About Pali:
Pali is the canonical language of Theravāda Buddhism, containing essential Buddhist scriptures like the Tripitaka.
The Pali Canon, known as the Tipitaka, was first orally transmitted and later written down in Sri Lanka in the 1st century BCE.
Pali is considered an early Prakrit language, closely related to the vernacular dialects spoken during the time of Buddha.
Pali’s use declined in India after the 12th century, but it was revived by Buddhist scholars in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Thailand.
Pali is often called a “dead language” as it was mainly a literary and liturgical language, not spoken as a native tongue.
The spread of Pali through Buddhist texts helped promote Indian culture and spirituality in Southeast Asia.
Pali continued to be preserved and promoted by councils, especially the Sixth Buddhist Council held in Myanmar in 1954–1956.
Granting classical status to Pali would help conserve the language and recognize its contributions to spiritual and cultural heritage.
About Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR):
The Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) is an autonomous body under the Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India.
Established in 1950 by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, ICCR’s mission is to promote Indian culture globally and foster cultural exchanges with other nations.
It is an autonomous organisation of the Government of India, involved in India’s external cultural relations i.e., cultural diplomacy.
Its objectives are:
- to actively participate in the formulation and implementation of policies and programmes pertaining to India’s external cultural relations.
- to foster and strengthen cultural relations and mutual understanding between India and other countries,
- to promote cultural exchanges with other countries and people, and to develop relations with nations.
It is running 36 cultural centres in different countries with the promotion of Indian culture and projecting India as a hub for higher education.
It instituted several awards for foreign nationals as a way to promote India’s culture abroad:
- Distinguished Indologist Award
- World Sanskrit Award
- Distinguished Alumni Award – Citation and Plaque
- Gisela Bonn Award
Sub : Sci
Sec: Awareness in AI
Why in News
The United States has unveiled a National Security Memorandum (NSM) addressing national security risks associated with artificial intelligence (AI). This initiative follows President Joe Biden’s executive order on AI regulation, highlighting the urgency of managing technological advancements while safeguarding public trust.
Main Aspects of the Memorandum:
- The NSM emphasizes the need for the U.S. to maintain its technological edge over adversaries like China, particularly in military and intelligence contexts.
- It calls for collaboration with the private sector to enhance security measures and ensure that AI development aligns with national interests.
- The memorandum urges the development of international agreements to ensure AI systems are safe and trustworthy.
- Agencies are directed to prioritize AI in government supercomputers and emerging technology systems.
- It outlines steps to enhance the cybersecurity of AI systems, highlighting the importance of counterintelligence against espionage targeting the U.S. AI industry.
- The NSM reaffirms support for the National AI Research Resource program, facilitating access to essential resources for AI research.
Other Recent Global Efforts to Regulate AI:
The world’s inaugural AI Safety Summit, hosted at Bletchley Park in the UK, saw 28 major nations, including the US, China, Japan, the UK, France, India, and the European Union, unite in signing a declaration emphasizing the necessity for global action to address the potential perils of AI.
The declaration underscores the recognition of significant risks stemming from potential deliberate misuse and unintended control challenges in advanced AI, particularly in domains such as cybersecurity, biotechnology, and the spread of disinformation.
In response to these concerns, the US President issued an executive order aiming to fortify defences against AI-related threats and exercise regulatory oversight over safety standards applied by companies in the assessment of generative AI systems like ChatGPT and Google Bard.
During the G20 Leaders’ Summit held in New Delhi, the Indian Prime Minister advocated for the creation of a global framework governing the development of “ethical” AI tools.
This shift in New Delhi’s stance signifies a transition from a position of non-interference in AI regulation to a proactive approach, involving the formulation of regulations grounded in a “risk-based, user-harm” perspective.