Daily Prelims Notes 26 August 2024

Daily Prelims Notes

26 August 2024

Table Of Contents

1. NASA Postpones Astronauts’ Return on Boeing Starliner, opts for SpaceX in 2025
2. Rohingya refugees mark the anniversary of their exodus and demand a safe return to Myanmar
3. Attacking Hezbollah, Israel fighter jets launch strikes across Lebanon
4. Frequent mass wasting in Tibet a cause for worry in India
5. Community nurseries or ‘Nursery Langars’ saved Punjab from massive crop losses caused by floods in 2023: PAU study
6. With hundreds stranded in Sao Paulo, India to broach topic with Brazil Minister Foreign Minister
7. Environmental Impact of Lithium Mining in Chile’s Atacama Salt Flat
8. Luxury Yacht Sinks Off Sicily: Investigating Causes and Responsibilities
9. U.N. ‘concerned’ by Afghanistan morality law
10. Long-term monitoring of Himalayan glaciers essential to assess their health

1. NASA Postpones Astronauts’ Return on Boeing Starliner, opts for SpaceX in 2025

Sub: Sci

Sec: Space sector

Why this Is in the News

NASA’s recent decision to delay the return of two astronauts aboard Boeing’s Starliner capsule has significant implications for the U.S. space program. This move highlights ongoing safety concerns with Boeing’s spacecraft, affects the timeline for crewed missions to the International Space Station (ISS), and underscores the dynamics of NASA’s commercial partnerships.

Overview of the Situation

NASA announced that using Boeing’s Starliner capsule to return astronauts Barry Wilmore and Sunita Williams to Earth is too risky. Instead, the astronauts will remain on the ISS until February 2025 and return via SpaceX’s capsule. This decision transforms what was intended to be a week-long test flight into an extended mission lasting over eight months.

Main Issues

Safety Concerns with Boeing Starliner

Thruster Failures and Helium Leaks

Since June, the Starliner capsule has encountered multiple thruster failures and helium leaks. These technical issues compromised the safety of the mission, forcing the astronauts to remain in a holding pattern while engineers assessed the situation.

Risks of Autopilot Return

NASA evaluated the possibility of an autonomous return using Starliner’s autopilot mode. However, due to uncertainties surrounding thruster performance and potential re-entry failures, NASA deemed this option too hazardous.

Impact on Astronauts

Extended Stay at ISS

Wilmore and Williams have been confined to the ISS since June, far exceeding their planned mission duration. This prolonged stay raises concerns about the astronauts’ well-being and the logistical support required for their extended presence.

Return Plans in 2025

The astronauts are now scheduled to return to Earth aboard a SpaceX capsule in February 2025. Meanwhile, the empty Starliner capsule will attempt an autonomous return to Earth in early September, landing in the New Mexico desert.

Boeing’s Starliner Program Challenges

Previous Test Flight Failures

Boeing’s Starliner program has faced significant setbacks, including a failed uncrewed test flight in 2019 due to software issues. Subsequent attempts have been plagued by parachute malfunctions and additional helium leaks.

Financial and Design Setbacks

The ongoing technical problems have led to delays and increased costs for Boeing, which has invested over $4 billion in the Starliner program. These challenges have hindered Boeing’s ability to deliver a reliable crewed spacecraft.

NASA’s Safety Commitment

Lessons from Past Accidents

NASA Administrator Bill Nelson emphasized that the decision was driven by a commitment to safety, drawing lessons from previous space shuttle accidents. Ensuring astronaut safety remains paramount in all mission decisions.

Decision-Making Process

After thorough testing and deliberation, NASA concluded that the risks associated with using Starliner for crewed missions were unacceptable. The agency prioritized safety over adhering to the original mission timeline.

Future of Commercial Crew Program

Continued Support for Boeing

Despite current setbacks, NASA remains committed to the commercial crew program and believes that Boeing can resolve the issues with Starliner to become a viable option in the future.

Reliance on SpaceX

SpaceX has emerged as the primary provider for crewed missions to the ISS, having successfully conducted multiple astronaut flights since 2020. NASA plans to depend on SpaceX for immediate crew transport needs while addressing Starliner’s challenges.

Statements and Reactions

NASA Officials

Bill Nelson and Jim Free affirmed that the decision to delay the return was difficult but essential for ensuring crew safety. They expressed confidence in Boeing’s ability to rectify the Starliner’s issues.

Boeing’s Response

Boeing issued a statement emphasizing its focus on crew and spacecraft safety. The company is actively working to prepare Starliner for a safe and successful return, though it did not participate in NASA’s news conference.

Expert Opinions

Jan Osburg from Rand Corp. supported NASA’s decision but criticized the delays and design flaws that have hindered Starliner’s progress from the outset.

Family and Astronauts’ Perspective

Astronauts Wilmore and Williams, along with their families, have expressed support for NASA’s decision. Flight operations director Norm Knight confirmed that the astronauts fully back the postponement of their return.

Historical Context of Starliner Development

The Starliner program was initiated to provide the U.S. with an independent crew transport solution post-space shuttle era. However, the program has been beset by technical challenges since its inception, including software failures during test flights and subsequent issues with parachutes and thrusters. These setbacks have delayed the program and increased its financial burden.

Implications for Future Space Missions

The challenges faced by Boeing’s Starliner highlight the complexities involved in developing reliable crewed spacecraft. NASA’s emphasis on safety may lead to further delays but reinforces the importance of rigorous testing and risk management in space exploration. The reliance on SpaceX underscores the competitive dynamics within the commercial space sector and the need for multiple reliable providers.

NASA’s decision to delay the return of astronauts aboard Boeing’s Starliner capsule underscores the agency’s unwavering commitment to safety amidst technical challenges. While the astronauts await their return on SpaceX’s reliable spacecraft in 2025, the future of the Starliner program remains hopeful but contingent on resolving its current issues. This development reflects the critical balance between advancing commercial space initiatives and ensuring the safety and success of crewed missions.

2. Rohingya refugees mark the anniversary of their exodus and demand a safe return to Myanmar

Sub: IR

Sec: Places in news

Context:

• Rohingya refugees living in camps in Bangladesh demanded a safe return to Rakhine state on the seventh anniversary of their mass exodus.

Who are Rohingyas?

• Rohingya are an ethnic group, largely comprising Muslims, who predominantly live in the Western Myanmar province of Rakhine.
• The Rohingya are culturally and religiously distinct from the majority Buddhist population in Myanmar.
• They speak a dialect of Bengali, as opposed to the commonly spoken Burmese language.
• They have suffered decades of violence, discrimination and persecution in Myanmar.

Citizenship issue:

• Though Rohingyas have been living in Myanmar for generations, Myanmar considers them as persons who migrated to their land during the colonial rule and has not granted Rohingyas full citizenship.
• According the 1982 Burmese citizenship law, a Rohingya (or any ethnic minority) is eligible for citizenship only if he/she provides proof that his/her ancestors have lived in the country prior to 1823.
• Else, they are classified as “resident foreigners” or as “associate citizens”.
• Since they are not citizens, they are not entitled to be part of civil service and their movements are also restricted within the Rakhine state.

What happened on 25^th August 2017?

• The Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army (ARSA), a militant group staged a coordinated attack on 30 police posts and an army base in Rakhine state on August 25, 2017.
• Myanmar launched a brutal crackdown following the attacks.
• The scale, organization and ferocity of the operation led to accusations from the international community, including the UN, of ethnic cleansing and genocide.
• Thousands of Rohingyas fled their homes and sought refuge in neighbouring Bangladesh, a Muslim-majority nation.
• Some of them sought asylum in Thailand, The Philippines, Indonesia and Malaysia etc.

Current scenario:

• In the recent past, the situation in Rakhine state has become more volatile increased fighting between Myanmar’s military junta and the Arakan Army over the past year has both caught Rohingya in the middle and seen them targeted.
• UNICEF said that the agency received alarming reports that civilians, particularly children and families, were being targeted or caught in the crossfire, resulting in deaths and severe injuries, making humanitarian access in Rakhine extremely challenging.

Bangladesh’s problem:

• In 2017, Bangladesh opened its borders to Rohingyas leaving Myanmar, eventually allowing more than 700,000 refugees to take shelter in the Muslim-majority nation.
• This was in addition to the more than 300,000 refugees who had already been living in Bangladesh for decades in the wake of waves of previous violences by Myanmar’s military.
• Since 2017, Bangladesh has attempted multiple times to send the refugees back, but with little success.

3. Attacking Hezbollah, Israel fighter jets launch strikes across Lebanon

Sub: IR

Sec: Places in news

Context:

• Israel launched a series of air strikes across Lebanon in what it said was a pre-emptive strike to avert a large Hezbollah attack.
• Israeli Prime Minister also warned that the strikes in Lebanon were “not the final word” in Israel’s military campaign against Hezbollah.
• Soon after, Hezbollah said it had launched an attack on Israeli military positions as an initial response to the killing of a Lebanese military leader in an Israeli air strike.

Heightened tensions:

• Exchange of fire appears to have ended for now and both sides claim to have only targeted military sites.
• Situation remains tense, with potential for further escalation.

Background of the issue:

• On October 8, 2023, a significant escalation in the Israel-Hamas conflict occurred when Hamas launched a large-scale surprise attack on Israel.
• In response, Israel undertook extensive military operations in Gaza, aiming to neutralize Hamas’ capabilities and infrastructure.
• The escalation led to severe humanitarian crisis in Gaza and heightened tensions across the region.
• Hezbollah, a Shiite militant group based in Lebanon, has historically supported Hamas, a Palestinian Islamist organization.
• Hezbollah has provided military support and financial aid to Hamas in the ongoing conflict with Israel.
• While the Lebanese government officially maintains a stance of neutrality, Hezbollah and Israel have exchanged fire along the Lebanon-Israel border.

Peace talks:

• Egypt is hosting high-level talks to broker a ceasefire in the Israel-Hamas war in Gaza.

About Hezbollah:

• Hezbollah is a Shia Islamist political party and militant group based in Lebanon.
• It emerged in the 1980s as a response to the Israeli occupation of southern Lebanon.
• It is designated as a terrorist organisation by several countries, including US and Israel.
• The group is currently involved in Lebanese politics, holding seats in the Parliament and participating in the government.
• It is a part of the axis of resistance grouping.

4. Frequent mass wasting in Tibet a cause for worry in India

Sub: Geo

Sec: Indian Physical geo

Context:

• Mass wasting has increased in the Sedongpu Gully, Tibetan Plateau, since 2017 due to rapid warming.
• A geological event, mass wasting is the gravity-influenced movement of rock and soil down a slope.
• A gully is a landform created by erosion from running water, mass movement or both.

Sedongpu glacier:

• The Sedongpu Gully, in the catchment of the Sedongpu glacier and its valley, is 11 km long and covers 66.8 sq. km.
• It drains into the Yarlung Zangbo, or the Tsangpo River, near where it takes a sharp turn- called the Great Bend– while flowing around Mt. Namcha Barwa (altitude 7,782 metres) and Mt. Gyala Peri (7,294 metres) to create a gorge 505 km long and 6,009 metres deep. This is one of the deepest gorges on the earth.
• The Great Bend is close to Tibet’s border with Arunachal Pradesh, where the Tsangpo flows as the Siang River.
• In Assam further downstream, the Siang meets the Dibang and Lohit to form the Brahmaputra, which flows as the Jamuna in Bangladesh.

River Choking and Flash Floods:

• China plans to set up a 60-gigawatt project on the Tsangpo, which will [have] thrice the capacity of the Three Gorges project on the Yangtze, the world’s largest hydropower plant, raising concerns about river choking and flash floods in downstream areas.
• The Brahmaputra, one of the most sediment-laden rivers, already carries over 800 tonnes of sediment at Pandu in Guwahati, increasing to more than a billion tonnes in Bangladesh.
• Increased sedimentation could worsen flood hazards, cause river channels to choke, and affect livelihoods dependent on fishing.
• More than 700 million cubic metres of debris have been mobilised since 2017 due to warming and earthquakes.

Patterns of Landslides:

• The Sedongpu study analysed 149 satellite images from 1969 to 2023, identifying 19 large mass-wasting events in the gully.
• These events were categorized into ice-rock avalanches (IRA), ice-moraine avalanches (IMA), and glacier debris flows (GDF).
• Debris from IRAs has temporarily blocked the Tsangpo River, leading to catastrophic flash floods downstream, such as those in Arunachal Pradesh and Assam in 2000.

Lull Before Hyperactivity:

• The gully experienced its first mass wasting event from 1974 to 1975, with no catastrophic events until 1987.
• A significant increase in mass wasting events has been observed since 2017, with 13 out of 19 events occurring post-2017, accounting for 68.4% of the total.
• The study notes that the area’s bedrock is mainly Proterozoic marble, with land surface temperatures rarely exceeding 0º C before 2012, but increasing rapidly since then.

Mass Wasting:

• Mass wasting, or mass movement, involves the movement of rock or soil down slopes under the force of gravity.
• It differs from other erosion processes as the debris is not transported by a moving medium like water, wind, or ice.
• Types of mass wasting include creep, solifluction, rockfalls, debris flows, and landslides, each with unique characteristics and varying timescales, from seconds to hundreds of years.
• This process occurs on terrestrial and submarine slopes and has been observed on Earth and other bodies in the Solar System, including Mars, Venus, and Jupiter’s moon Io.

Source: TH

5. Community nurseries or ‘Nursery Langars’ saved Punjab from massive crop losses caused by floods in 2023: PAU study

Sub: Geo

Sec: Eco Geo

Context:

• Punjab was saved from incurring losses of Rs 2,800 crore due to community nurseries, known as “nursery langars”.
• Despite an additional expenditure of Rs 245 crore by farmers, the community nurseries helped achieve the average rice yield equivalent to 2022 levels.

Nursery Langars Initiative

• The “Nursery Langar” initiative, rooted in Sikh tradition, played a crucial role in saving flood-hit farmers by providing free paddy saplings.
  • It provided free nurseries to farmers after floods damaged lands in 2023.
• Volunteers, entrepreneurs, and farmer groups raised nurseries, which were geo-tagged and made accessible to affected farmers through publicized contact information.
• Awareness camps and support from PAU, KVKs, and regional centers helped small and marginal farmers replant short-duration rice varieties like PR 126 and Pusa Basmati 1509.

Economic Impact and Success of the Initiative:

• Farmers incurred additional costs for re-transplantation, including labour, diesel, and weedicide expenses, totalling Rs 245 crore.
• Despite the floods, the average rice yield in Punjab increased by 4%, with the highest yield recorded in Malerkotla district.
• The success of the community nurseries demonstrates their effectiveness as a contingency plan to mitigate the impact of floods, highlighting the broader role they can play in addressing climatic challenges.

Source: DTE

6. With hundreds stranded in Sao Paulo, India to broach topic with Brazil Minister Foreign Minister

Subject: IR

Sec: Places in news

Context:

The plight of hundreds of men and women, many of them Indian, who are stranded at an airport in Sao Paulo as they are suspected to be illegal immigrants, maybe discussed during meetings with Brazilian Foreign Minister Mauro Vieira.

More on News:

• Vieira is in New Delhi to hold the 9th India-Brazil Joint Commission meeting with External Affairs Minister S. Jaishankar, and they will also discuss the agenda for the upcoming G-20 summit in Rio De Janeiro on November 18 and 19, 2024.
• The plight of hundreds of men and women, many of them Indian, who are stranded at an airport in Sao Paulo as they are suspected to be illegal immigrants, maybe discussed during meetings with Brazilian Foreign Minister Mauro Vieira.
• With Brazil holding the G-20 Presidency this year, the Ministers will also discuss how the two countries as [part of the] Troika can take forth key G-20 outcomes from the Indian Presidency last year.
• Brazil exports crude oil and cooperates with India on biofuels. 
• Although India is a key member of the “Troika” of Brazil, India and South Africa (hosts of 2023, 2024 and 2025 respectively).
• India and Brazil are also both members of the BRICS, IBSA and BASIC groupings as well as part of the G-4 initiative for UN reform and the Ministers are likely to speak about the upcoming UN “Summit of the Future” on September 22-23, that Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Brazil President Lula da Silva are expected to attend.

Brazil’s new regulations:

• To crackdown on illegal immigration routes, and the issue of more than 660 people, including more than 100 Indians being held in Sao Paulo’s Guarulhos Airport for several weeks, are not on the formal agenda, officials expect that they will be raised. “We have seen reports of people stranded who ask to be admitted [to Brazil] as refugees,” while adding that no information has been shared with New Delhi so far due to privacy reasons, and to protect those requesting asylum.
• On August 22, Brazil’s Justice Ministry also announced it would impose new restrictions on travellers from “certain Asian countries” who transit through its airports beginning August 26, and will not allow them to stay on in Brazil.
• The measure is expected to target Indians, Chinese, Nepalis and Vietnamese citizens in particular, who are believed to be part of a growing trend of illegal immigrants landing and requesting asylum, and then taking the land route from Brazil to the Mexican border with the United States in order to cross over to the U.S. and Canada.
• According the U.S. Justice department, the number of such “asylum applications” have increased 61 times between 2013 and 2023, growing from 69 to 4,239, and they were joining hands with other countries in North and South America to restrict the illegal immigration route.
• Evidence suggests that those migrants, in their majority, are making use of the known – and extremely dangerous – route that goes from Sao Paulo to the western state of Acre, so they can access Peru and go toward Central America and then, finally, reach the U.S. from its southern border.

7. Environmental Impact of Lithium Mining in Chile’s Atacama Salt Flat

Sub: Geo

Sec: Eco geo

Why This is in News:

A recent study by researchers at the University of Chile, published in the journal IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, has revealed that the Atacama salt flat is sinking due to lithium mining activities. This study highlights the environmental consequences of lithium extraction, a critical issue given the increasing global demand for lithium, especially for use in electric vehicle batteries.

Main Issues:

Lithium Extraction and Subsidence in Atacama

• Study Findings: Researchers found that the Atacama salt flat is sinking by 1 to 2 centimeters annually. This subsidence is primarily occurring in areas where lithium miners are actively extracting lithium-rich brine.
• Mechanism of Sinking: The rapid extraction of brine is outpacing the natural recharge of aquifers, leading to the downward movement of the Earth’s surface.

Environmental Consequences of Lithium Mining

• Water Scarcity: The brine evaporation process, used to extract lithium, consumes vast amounts of freshwater—2,000 tons of water for every ton of lithium produced. This exacerbates water scarcity in the already arid Atacama Desert.
• Ecosystem Contamination: The use of chemicals like sulfuric acid and sodium hydroxide in lithium extraction contaminates the soil and water, threatening local ecosystems and species.
• Biodiversity Loss: A study in 2022 reported a decline in flamingo populations in the Atacama region, linked to reduced water levels caused by extensive lithium mining.

Atacama Desert:

Driest Place on Earth: The Atacama Desert is the driest desert in the world, with some areas receiving less than 1 millimeter of rainfall per year.

Location: It is located in northern Chile, stretching along the Pacific coast between the Andes Mountains and the Chilean Coast Range.

High Altitude: The desert’s elevation ranges from 2,400 meters (7,900 feet) to over 4,500 meters (14,800 feet) above sea level.

Salt Flats: The Atacama Desert is home to the Salar de Atacama, one of the largest salt flats in the world and a major source of lithium.

Unique Flora and Fauna: Despite its arid conditions, the Atacama supports unique plant and animal life adapted to extreme dryness, including the resilient Andean flamingo.

Astronomical Observatories: The desert’s clear skies and high altitude make it an ideal location for astronomical observatories, such as the ALMA (Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array) telescope.

Lithium:

Rechargeable Batteries: Lithium is a key component in rechargeable batteries used in electronics such as smartphones, laptops, and electric vehicles.

Symbol and Atomic Number: Lithium is represented by the chemical symbol “Li” and has the atomic number 3.

Lithium Reserves: The majority of the world’s lithium reserves are located in the “Lithium Triangle,” which includes parts of Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia.

Lightest Metal: Lithium is the lightest metal and has the lowest density of all solid elements, making it valuable for lightweight battery applications.

Industrial Uses: Beyond batteries, lithium is used in ceramics, glass, and as a heat-resistant lubricant.

Brine Evaporation Method for Lithium Extraction:

Collection: Lithium-rich brine, a saltwater solution containing lithium, is pumped from underground salt flats into large evaporation ponds.

Evaporation: The brine is spread across these ponds to allow water to evaporate naturally under the sun, leaving behind concentrated lithium salts.

Extraction: The concentrated lithium salts are then harvested and processed to obtain lithium carbonate or lithium hydroxide, which are used in batteries and other products.

Environmental Impact: This method requires significant amounts of freshwater for brine preparation and can lead to environmental concerns, including water depletion and soil contamination.

8. Luxury Yacht Sinks Off Sicily: Investigating Causes and Responsibilities

Sub: Geo

Sec: Climatology

Why This is in the News: The sinking of the luxury yacht Bayesian off the coast of Sicily has captured global attention due to the tragic loss of life and the high-profile individuals involved, including British billionaire Michael Lynch. Investigations are ongoing into the causes of the disaster, which could involve extreme weather conditions, human error, or issues with the yacht itself.

Main Issue:

1. Extreme Weather Conditions
   • Storm Description: The Bayesian sank during an exceptionally violent and sudden storm around 4 a.m. off Porticello, Sicily.

Reports indicate severe lightning, strong gusts, and possibly a waterspout or downburst.

• Meteorological Insights: The Italian air force’s Center for Aerospace Meteorology recorded intense weather, with warnings issued the previous evening about rough seas and strong winds.
• Witness Accounts: Fishermen and local sources reported winds resembling an “earthquake in the sky” and observed a flare before the yacht disappeared.

2. Possible Yacht Vulnerabilities
   • Design and Safety Features: Despite being designed for stability with a retractable keel, the Bayesian sank quickly.

The yacht was considered “unsinkable” by its manufacturer.

• Operational Issues: There are concerns that if hatches or doors were left open, water could have rapidly flooded the vessel. The yacht was found on its side, with its stern submerged first.

3. Human Error or Negligence
   • Crew Responsibilities: Investigators are exploring whether human error played a role. This includes potential failings by the captain or crew in handling the storm or emergency procedures.
   • Investigative Focus: Questions remain about the emergency training of the crew, the condition of the yacht, and the decisions made during the crisis. Survivors have not yet publicly commented, and no alcohol or drug tests were conducted on the crew.
   • Legal Implications: Possible manslaughter and negligence charges are under consideration. Prosecutors are also questioning why some passengers were left onboard while the captain and crew survived.

The sinking of the Bayesian raises critical questions about yacht safety, emergency preparedness, and the role of human error in maritime disasters. As investigators delve deeper, the focus will be on uncovering the true causes of the tragedy and addressing any potential legal repercussions.

Mediterranean Sea: The Mediterranean Sea is bordered by Europe to the north, Africa to the south, and Asia to the east.

Connecting Oceans: It connects to the Atlantic Ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar.

Major Seas: It includes several major seas such as the Tyrrhenian Sea, Adriatic Sea, Ionian Sea, and Aegean Sea.

Historical Significance: It was a central trade route in ancient civilizations and was crucial for the Roman Empire.

Climate: The Mediterranean Sea has a Mediterranean climate characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters.

Biodiversity: It is known for its unique marine biodiversity, including species like the Mediterranean monk seal and the loggerhead sea turtle.

Major Cities: Key cities along its coast include Barcelona, Athens, Istanbul, and Cairo.

Geological Feature: The Mediterranean Sea is part of the larger basin created by the collision of the African and Eurasian tectonic plates.

Environmental Issue: It faces environmental challenges such as pollution, overfishing, and the impacts of climate change.

Historical Events: The Mediterranean Sea has been the site of significant historical events, including naval battles and the spread of major religions and cultures.

Italy: Italy is located in Southern Europe, extending into the Mediterranean Sea.

Capital City: The capital city of Italy is Rome.

Major Rivers: Important rivers in Italy include the Po, Arno, and Tiber.

Mountain Ranges: Italy is home to the Apennine Mountains running down its spine and the Alps to the north.

Political Structure: Italy is a parliamentary republic with a President as the head of state and a Prime Minister as the head of government.

Historical Significance: Italy was the centre of the Roman Empire and has a rich cultural heritage including Renaissance art and architecture.

Economy: Italy has a diverse economy, with major industries including automotive (e.g., Fiat), fashion, and tourism.

UNESCO Sites: Italy boasts numerous UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the historic centres of Florence, Venice, and Rome.

Island Territories: Italy includes major islands such as Lampedusa, Sicily and Sardinia.

Geological Feature: Italy’s position on the boundary of the African and Eurasian tectonic plates makes it prone to seismic activity.

Climate: The country has a Mediterranean climate along the coast and more continental conditions in the interior.

Famous Landmarks: Key landmarks include the Colosseum, Leaning Tower of Pisa, and Vatican City.

9. U.N. ‘concerned’ by Afghanistan morality law

Subject: IR

Sec: Places in news

Context:

The U.N. mission in Afghanistan was “concerned” about a morality law recently ratified by the Taliban authorities, criticising in particular restrictions on women.

Afghanistan morality law:

• The Taliban authorities announced the codification of a law with 35 articles detailing wide-ranging behaviour and lifestyle restrictions based on their strict interpretation of Islamic law.
• The law sets out graduated punishments for non-compliance – from verbal warnings to threats, fines and detentions of varying lengths – imposed by the morality police under the Ministry for the Propagation of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice.
• It is a distressing vision for Afghanistan’s future, where moral inspectors have discretionary powers to threaten and detain anyone based on broad and sometimes vague lists of infractions.
• After decades of war and in the midst of a terrible humanitarian crisis, the Afghan people deserve much better than being threatened or jailed if they happen to be late for prayers, glance at a member of the opposite sex who is not a family member, or possess a photo of a loved one.
• Many components of the law have already been informally in place since the Taliban returned to power in August 2021.
• Women have borne the brunt of restrictions the N. has labelled “gender apartheid”, which have pushed them from public life.
• The law says women must cover their faces and bodies if they leave the house, as well as ensure their voices are not heard.
• The U.N. also expressed concern over restrictions on religious and press freedoms in the law, which stipulates media must not publish “content hostile to Sharia law and religion” or “that shows living beings”.

10. Long-term monitoring of Himalayan glaciers essential to assess their health

Subject:  Geo

Sec: Geomorphology

Context:

Of the estimated 200,000 glaciers in the world, the Himalaya-Karakoram range is home to 39,660. Of these, only 24 have been consistently monitored for their glacier mass balance which indicates whether a glacier is growing or shrinking.

Monitor glacial health:

• It is crucial to monitor glacial health to understand the relationship of glaciers with climate and hydrology in the region.
• But high elevation and challenging atmospheric and climatic conditions make it difficult to monitor.
• Demarcating micro-climatic regions and monitoring a glacier in each of them as a representative of the whole region.
• The Himalaya-Karakoram (HK), a 2,500 kilometre-long mountain range, straddles the border between India in the east and across Bhutan, Nepal, northern India, and Pakistan in the west. This region is home to over 39,660 glaciers, covering 42,525 square kilometres across three river basins: Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra.
• HK region has a much higher number of glaciers than any other mountain range on Earth.

Formation of glaciers:

• When snow falls and accumulates new layers over time, it gets compressed into large, thick masses of ice, forming glaciers.
• The upper part of the glacier — called the accumulation zone — receives precipitation in the form of snow, which accumulates over time.
• But in the lower part of the glacier — called the ablation zone — there is more melting of the snow and ice than accumulation.
• The balance between the accumulated and melted snow is known as the glacier mass balance, which determines the health of the glacier.
• Glaciers are crucial for downstream communities as they provide drinking water, or water for irrigation.
• Glaciers also regulate river flow and counter global warming.

Need to monitor glaciers:

• To understand how glaciers evolve — if glacier mass is growing, shrinking, or remaining the same — glaciologists say it is important to monitor glaciers on a yearly basis.
• The snow accumulation and the snow melt is measured throughout the hydrological year, to determine the glacier’s health.
• Of Nepal’s glaciers, which fall under the Central Himalayas, less than ten (only seven glaciers) are being monitored. Three of these — Mera glacier, Changri Nup glacier and Pokalde glacier — are located within the Dudh Koshi basin, in Nepal’s Khumbu area, home to Mount Everest.
• Mera glacier has been monitored since 2007 at least once a year (in November).
• Its mass balance series is the longest continuous field-based series in the Central Himalayas and second longest in the entire Hindu Kush Himalayan region.