Daily Prelims Notes 30 January 2025

Daily Prelims Notes

30thJan ,2025

1.Russia, in bid to retain military bases, holds talks with Syria

Sub :  IR

Sec: Places in news

Context:

• Russia recently held “frank” discussions with Syria’s new de facto leader, Mohammed al-Jolani, as it seeks to maintain control over its two military bases in Syria.

Background:

• The Syrian civil war began in 2011 amidst Arab Spring-inspired anti-government protests. Multiple factions, including jihadist groups and rebels, rose against the regime.
• By 2015, Assad’s government retained control only over Damascus and some coastal cities, while opposition groups like the Free Syrian Army, Jabhat al-Nusra (al-Qaeda affiliate), and the Islamic State (IS) controlled other regions.
• Russian Intervention (2015): Russia’s military involvement turned the tide in Assad’s favour.
• The Syrian army, supported by Russia, Iran, and Hezbollah, recaptured key territories, including Aleppo in 2016.
• Ceasefire (post-2016): The conflict entered a frozen stage, with the Assad regime holding most territories but peace remaining elusive.
• Recently, after 5 decades of Assad rule, Syrianrebels led by Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) captured Damascus, ending the 13-year civil war.

Russian Military Bases:

• Russia’s primary interest in Syria involves retaining its military presence, particularly at its naval base in Tartous and Hmeimim air base near the port city of Latakia.
• These bases are crucial for Russia’s strategic projection of power in the region.
• Russia’s naval base in Tartous provides it with a strategic foothold in the Mediterranean Sea, essential for its military operations.

Syrian Demands:

• According to a Syrian source, al-Jolani requested that Russia hand over Bashar al-Assad, who fled to Russia when he was overthrown.
• The Syrian government, under Jolani’s leadership, is also seeking Russia, which backed Mr. Assad in the country’s civil war, to re build trust through “concrete measures such as compensation, reconstruction and recovery”.

2.HRW calls out Ethiopia for ‘assault’ on rights groups

Sub :  IR

Sec: Places in news

 Context:

• Human Rights Watch (HRW) has criticized Ethiopia for escalating its crackdown on civil society, particularly following the suspension of two major independent human rights organizations, the Ethiopian Human Rights Council (EHRC) and the Ethiopian Human Rights Defenders Centre (EHRDC).

Suspension of Human Rights Organizations:

• In December 2024, the Ethiopian government suspended EHRC (Ethiopia’s oldest independent human rights group) and EHRDC. This move follows the suspension of three other rights groups in December.
• These suspensions were based on allegations that both organizations lacked independence and were acting beyond their mandated roles.
• HRW condemned these actions, viewing them as part of an escalating effort by the government to restrict the activities of civil society in Ethiopia.

About Ethiopia:

• It is a landlocked country located in the Horn of Africa, officially known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia.
• The capital of Ethiopia is Addis Ababa.
• Ethiopia borders Sudan to the southeast, Eritrea to the south, Djibouti and Somalia to the west, Kenya to the north, and South Sudan to the east.
• Ethiopia faces intensified conflict in Oromia, Tigray and Amhara regions with devastating impacts on civilians, education.

3.National Critical Mineral Mission

Sub : Geo

Sec: Eco Geo

Context: The Union Cabinet, chaired by Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi, has approved the launch of the National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM).The mission has an expenditure outlay of Rs.16,300 crore and an expected investment of Rs.18,000 crore by PSUs and other entities.

• It aims to build a resilient value chain for critical minerals essential for green technologies, high-tech industries, clean energy, and defense.
• The mission aligns with the Atmanirbhar Bharat initiative to make India self-reliant in the critical minerals sector.

What Are Critical Minerals?

• In July 2023, the government identified 30 minerals as Critical Minerals by amending the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957, through the MMDR Amendment Act, 2023.
• The 30 critical minerals are Antimony, Beryllium, Bismuth, Cobalt, Copper, Gallium, Germanium, Graphite, Hafnium, Indium, Lithium, Molybdenum, Niobium, Nickel, PGE, Phosphorous, Potash, REE, Rhenium, Silicon, Strontium, Tantalum, Tellurium, Tin, Titanium, Tungsten, Vanadium, Zirconium, Selenium and Cadmium
• Critical minerals are essential for various industries, including electronics, renewable energy, electric vehicles, and defense.
• These minerals have high economic importance but are prone to supply chain disruptions due to limited global availability and geopolitical factors.

Key Features of the National Critical Mineral Mission

• Covers all stages of the value chain, including:
  • Mineral exploration
  • Mining
  • Beneficiation
  • Processing
  • Recovery from end-of-life products
• Focus on intensified exploration of critical minerals within India and its offshore areas.
• Establishment of a fast-track regulatory approval process for critical mineral mining projects.
• Financial incentives for critical mineral exploration and recovery from overburden and tailings.
• Encourages Indian PSUs and private companies to acquire critical mineral assets abroad.
• Aims to develop a stockpile of critical minerals within the country.
• Plans to set up mineral processing parks and support recycling of critical minerals.
• Promotes research and development in critical mineral technologies.
• Proposes establishing a Centre of Excellence on Critical Minerals.
• Adopts a whole-of-government approach, working with ministries, PSUs, private companies, and research institutions.

Recent Policy and Legislative Measures

• Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 was amended in 2023 to increase exploration and mining of critical minerals.
• Ministry of Mines has auctioned 24 blocks of strategic minerals under this framework.
• Geological Survey of India (GSI):
  • Undertook 368 exploration projects for critical minerals over the past three years.
  • Currently working on 195 projects in FY 2024-25.
  • Plans to take up 227 projects for FY 2025-26.
• Science and Technology – Promotion of Research and Innovation in Start-ups and MSMEs (S&T PRISM) program was launched in 2023 to fund start-ups and MSMEs for bridging the gap between R&D and commercialization.
• KABIL (Khanij Bidesh India Ltd.), a joint venture under the Ministry of Mines, has acquired 15,703 hectares in Catamarca province, Argentina, for Lithium exploration and mining.

The Government of India eliminated customs duties on most critical minerals in Union Budget 2024-25 to enhance availability and promote domestic processing.

4.RNA Therapeutics for Retinal Diseases

Sub : Sci

Sec: Health

Why in News

RNA-based therapeutics are emerging as a revolutionary approach to treating inherited retinal diseases (IRDs), offering targeted and safer alternatives compared to DNA-based gene therapies. A recent collaboration between CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, New Delhi, and the L.V. Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, has led to the development of a precision therapy for a specific form of IRD.

What are Inherited Retinal Diseases (IRDs)?

• IRDs are a group of genetic disorders that cause progressive vision loss, often leading to blindness.
• These diseases result from mutations in over 300 genes responsible for retinal function.
• The severity of IRDs varies; some individuals experience early-onset blindness, while others suffer from gradual vision deterioration.

• Globally, approximately 5.5 million people suffer from IRDs, with a prevalence rate of 1 in 3,450 individuals.

RNA-Based Therapeutics:

• In 2017, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the first gene therapy for blindness caused by mutations in the RPE65 gene.

• Unlike DNA-based gene editing, RNA-based therapies offer temporary modifications, reducing risks of long-term genetic changes.
• RNA therapies allow precise, personalized treatment for IRDs without altering the genetic code permanently.
• Types of RNA Therapeutics for IRDs:

• Antisense Oligonucleotides (ASOs): Successfully used for treating spinal muscular atrophy and Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Currently being explored for retinal conditions like Stargardt disease, Leber congenital amaurosis, and retinitis pigmentosa.
• RNA Editing with ADAR Enzymes: This method enables precise correction of specific genetic mutations at the RNA level. It restores protein production in retinal cells without modifying DNA.
• Suppressor tRNA Therapy: Addresses stop-codon mutations that prematurely halt protein synthesis. Helps restore full-length protein production, essential for retinal function.
• Small Molecule RNA Therapy (Ataluren/PTC124): Already in use for treating cystic fibrosis and Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Currently under clinical trials for treating aniridia, a rare developmental eye disorder.

 RPE65 Gene:

• The RPE65 gene provides instructions for producing a protein essential for normal vision. This protein is produced in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), a layer of cells that nourishes and supports the retina.

ABCA4 Gene:

• The ABCA4 gene provides instructions for making a protein found in the retina, the specialized light-sensitive tissue that lines the back of the eye. This protein is involved in the visual cycle, particularly in the transport of molecules within photoreceptor cells.

5.China’s Advancements in Laser Fusion Research

Sub : Sci

Sec: Nuclear Sector

Why in News

China is reportedly constructing a large-scale laser fusion research facility in Mianyang, Sichuan province. This development, analysed by independent research organizations, could have significant implications for both nuclear weapons design and future energy generation.

Key Points:

• Location: Mianyang, Sichuan province, China.
• The facility shares design similarities with the U.S. National Ignition Facility (NIF) in California but is estimated to be 50% larger.
• Expected to facilitate research in nuclear fusion energy and improve nuclear weapons designs without actual detonations.

• According to nuclear policy analysts, any nation with an NIF-type facility can refine existing nuclear weapon designs and develop future models without live nuclear testing.

• The facility could contribute to laser fusion research, also known as Inertial Confinement Fusion (ICF).
• Fusion energy, which relies on hydrogen isotopes, has the potential to become a sustainable and clean power source in the future.
• The National Ignition Facility (NIF) in the U.S. achieved scientific breakeven in 2022, generating more energy from fusion than what was inputted by lasers.

• Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT): China and the U.S. are signatories, prohibiting nuclear explosions in all environments.
• Allowed Research: Subcritical nuclear tests (without a nuclear chain reaction).

• Nations including France, the UK, and Russia also operate similar ICF-based laser fusion research centres.
• The scale of these facilities correlates with the required energy to achieve nuclear ignition.
• Modern advancements allow for more energy-efficient facilities with smaller footprints, but experimental fusion demands a minimum energy threshold.

Inertial Confinement Fusion (ICF):

• ICF involves rapidly compressing and heating a small pellet of fusion fuel, typically isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium and tritium), using high-energy lasers or particle beams.
• Process:
  • Compression: Intense laser beams are directed symmetrically onto a hollow pellet filled with fusion fuel.
  • Heating: The energy from the lasers ablates the outer shell of the pellet, causing the inner part to implode and compress the fuel to extremely high densities and temperatures.
  • Fusion: Under these conditions, the fusion fuel undergoes nuclear fusion, releasing energy.
• ICF research contributes to understanding fusion energy production and supports national security through insights into nuclear weapons physics without the need for explosive testing.

List of Major Nuclear Fusion Research Projects in the World

Nuclear fusion research is a global effort to develop a clean and sustainable energy source. Various countries and institutions are working on different fusion reactor designs and technologies. Here are some of the most significant fusion research projects:

1. International Projects

(1) ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) – France

Location: Cadarache, France

Type: Tokamak

Key Players: EU, USA, Russia, China, India, Japan, South Korea

Goal: To demonstrate sustained fusion reactions with 500 MW power output from 50 MW input.

Status: Under construction; expected first plasma by 2025, full fusion by 2035.

(2) NIF (National Ignition Facility) – USA

Location: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, California, USA

Type: Inertial Confinement Fusion (ICF)

Key Feature: Uses 192 laser beams to compress a hydrogen pellet for ignition.

Major Milestone: Achieved fusion ignition in 2022, a major step toward net energy gain.

(3) JET (Joint European Torus) – UK

Location: Culham, UK

Type: Tokamak

Key Feature: Held the world record for energy production (59 MJ in 2022).

Future: Acts as a testing ground for ITER.

(4) Wendelstein 7-X – Germany

Location: Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics, Germany

Type: Stellarator

Key Feature: Uses a complex twisted magnetic field design for stable plasma confinement.

Goal: Testing plasma stability for future fusion reactors.

(5) EAST (Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak) – China

Location: Hefei, China

Key Feature: Achieved 102 seconds at 120 million °C in 2022.

2. National Fusion Programs

(6) SPARC – USA (MIT & Commonwealth Fusion Systems)

• Location: Massachusetts, USA
• Type: Compact High-Field Tokamak
• Key Feature: Using high-temperature superconductors (HTS) to build a smaller but powerful fusion device.
• Goal: Achieve net energy gain before 2030.

(7) KSTAR (Korean Superconducting Tokamak Advanced Research) – South Korea

• Location: Daejeon, South Korea
• Key Feature: Achieved 30 seconds of sustained plasma at 100 million °C in 2021.
• Goal: Developing technology for Korea’s future commercial fusion reactor.

(8) CFETR (China Fusion Engineering Test Reactor) – China

• Location: China
• Type: Tokamak
• Goal: Bridge the gap between ITER and commercial fusion power plants.

(9) IGNITOR – Russia

• Location: Troitsk, Russia
• Type: Compact High-Field Tokamak
• Key Feature: Focuses on achieving self-sustaining burning plasma conditions.

3. Private Fusion Companies Leading Research

(10) TAE Technologies (Formerly Tri Alpha Energy) – USA

• Approach: Field-Reversed Configuration (FRC)
• Goal: Using hydrogen-boron fusion, which produces no neutrons or radioactive waste.

(11) Helion Energy – USA

• Approach: Pulsed Magneto-Inertial Fusion
• Goal: Achieve commercial fusion energy by 2030.

(12) General Fusion – Canada

• Approach: Magnetized Target Fusion (MTF)
• Key Feature: Uses a liquid metal liner to compress plasma.

(13) Tokamak Energy – UK

• Approach: Compact Spherical Tokamak with HTS Magnets
• Goal: Achieve net energy gain by the 2030s.

(14) First Light Fusion – UK

• Approach: Projectiles-based inertial fusion