Daily Prelims Notes 30 July 2024

July 30, 2024
Posted by: OptimizeIAS Team
Category: DPN

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Daily Prelims Notes

30 July 2024

Table Of Contents

1. Project Tiger to displace 5.5 lakh tribals, says rights group report

Sub: Env

Sec: Protected Area

Context:

A report from the Rights and Risks Analysis Group (RRAG) titled ‘India’s Tiger Reserves: Tribals Get Out, Tourists Welcome’ indicates that Project Tiger is set to displace at least 5.5 lakh Scheduled Tribes and other forest dwellers.

Details:

Prior to 2021, around 2,54,794 people were displaced from 50 tiger reserves, averaging 5,000 per protected area.
Since 2021, the average displacement from six tiger reserves has increased to 48,333 people, a 967% rise.
The Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan is expected to see the largest displacement of around 1,60,000 people.
Specific Reserves and Expected Displacements
Nauradehi Wildlife Sanctuary under Durgavati Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh: 72,772 people.
Ranipur Tiger Reserve, Uttar Pradesh: 45,000 people.
Ramgarh Vishdhari Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan: 4,400 people.
Srivilliputhur-Megamalai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu: 4,000 people.
Dholpur-Karauli Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan: 4,000 people.

Concerns Over Justification and Consent:

Some tiger reserves, including Sahyadri, Satkosia, Kamlang, Kawal, and Dampa, had no tigers but still saw 5,670 tribal families displaced.
The displacement lacks justification for bypassing the free, prior, and informed consent required under the Forest Rights Act and the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972.

Forced Evictions and Human Rights Violations:

The report highlights forced evictions involving human rights abuses such as the destruction of homes, denial of access to religious and cultural sites, and coercion through halted development programs.
Victims face civil and political rights violations, including extrajudicial killings, disappearances, torture, and other abuses.
The report mentions that between 1985 and June 2014, many alleged poachers were killed in Assam’s Kaziranga National Park, raising suspicions due to no forest staff being harmed.

Tourism vs. Tribal Rights

The Comptroller and Auditor General found unchecked commercial and ecotourism in core tiger reserve areas in states like Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and West Bengal, despite the displacement of tribal communities.

Successful Coexistence in Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Tiger Reserve

The report notes a positive example of coexistence between indigenous peoples and tigers in Karnataka’s Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple Tiger Reserve, where the Soliga tribal people have been allowed to live.
The tiger population in this area almost doubled from 35 to 68 between 2010 and 2014, surpassing the national growth rate.

Project Tiger:

It is a tiger conservation programme (a Centrally Sponsored Scheme of the MoEF&CC) launched in 1973 by the Government of India and administered by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA).
It aims at:
- Ensuring a viable population of the Bengal tiger (‘endangered’)in its natural habitats,
- Protecting it from extinction,
- Preserving areas of biological importance as a natural heritage that represent the diversity of ecosystems across the tiger’s range in the country.

Background of Project Tiger:

In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife (Protection) Act (WLPA) and introduced new spatial fixtures within notified forests, called ‘National Parks’.
- In the National Parks, the rights of forest dwellers were removed and vested with the State government.
- The WLPA also created ‘Wildlife Sanctuaries’, where only some permitted rights could be exercised.
The government created the ‘Critical Tiger Habitat’ (under the WLPA) in areas of National Parks and Sanctuaries which are required to be kept as inviolate for the purposes of wildlife conservation.

Source: TH

2. Charles Darwin’s frog: Endemic Andaman species breeding in unnatural sites due to habitat loss & competition for limited resources

Sub: Env

Sec: Species in news

Context:

The Charles Darwin frog, Minervarya charlesdarwini, found only in the Andaman Islands, exhibits unique mating behavior, involving upside-down mating and egg-laying.
Researchers from Harvard University and the University of Delhi studied this species over three consecutive monsoons, observing this distinct behaviour in tree cavities where frogs mate and lay eggs with their bodies above the water.

Adaptation to Environmental Changes

The species has adapted to environmental changes by using human waste, such as plastic and metal containers, as breeding sites due to the loss and fragmentation of forest habitats.
This behaviour has significant conservation implications, as the frog is listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List.
Male Charles Darwin frogs display aggressive behaviours during mating, including complex calls, physical fights, and attempts to disrupt mating pairs, which rarely result in fatalities.

Conservation Concerns and Recommendations:

The use of trash for breeding is concerning, highlighting the need for conservation efforts to protect natural breeding sites and maintain the species’ survival.
The research emphasizes the impact of human disturbances on species like the Charles Darwin frog, urging for the preservation of its specialized microhabitats.
The frog belongs to the Dicroglossidae family, a group with over 220 species, and its unique adaptations underscore the diverse reproductive behaviours still unexplored in biodiversity hotspots.

Source: DTE

3. Announcing the first Machine Unlearning Challenge

Sub: Sci

Sec: Awareness in IT

Context:

Google announced the first Machine Unlearning Challenge, which will be held as part of the NeurIPS 2023 Competition Track.

What is Machine Unlearning:

Machine unlearning refers to the process of selectively removing specific training data points and their influence on an already trained model, making the updated model behave the same as a model that was never trained on that data.
It provides a ‘subtractive’ capability to adapt models by removing unauthorized, malicious, or outdated data points without full retraining.
Machine unlearning plays an important role in ML models.
The field of machine unlearning is related to other areas of machine learning such as differential privacy, life-long learning, and fairness.

What are the challenges of machine unlearning?

The problem of unlearning is complex and multifaceted as it involves several conflicting objectives like forgetting the requested data, maintaining the model’s utility (e.g., accuracy on retained and held-out data), and efficiency.
Also the evaluation of forgetting algorithms in the literature has so far been highly inconsistent.
Another challenge in this space is the effective erasure of data that has been requested to be deleted.
The unlearning process itself can leak information in multiple ways.
Tracing each data point’s influence becomes increasingly difficult as the dataset changes dynamically.

Unlearning challenge:

Google announced the first Machine Unlearning Challenge, which will be held as part of the NeurIPS 2023 Competition Track.
The goal of the competition is twofold.
- Unifying and standardizing the evaluation metrics for unlearning to identify the strengths and weaknesses of different algorithms through apples-to-apples comparisons.
- Opening this competition to everyone, will foster novel solutions and shed light on open challenges and opportunities.
The competition was hosted on Kaggle and ran between mid-July 2023 and mid-September 2023.

4. Indian scientists build breakthrough gene-editor

Sub: Sci

Sec: Biotech

Context:

Researchers at CSIR-IGIB and the L.V. Prasad Eye Institute has engineered new versions of an enzyme that can make CRISPR more precise.

More on the news:

Scientists have developed an enhanced genome-editing system that can modify DNA more precisely and more efficiently than existing CRISPR-based technologies.
CRISPR occurs naturally in some bacteria, as a part of their immune system that limits infections by recognising and destroying viral DNA.

What is CRISPR-Cas9?

CRISPR–Cas9 is a unique technology that enables geneticists and medical researchers to edit parts of the genome by removing, adding or altering sections of the DNA.
It is currently the simplest, most versatile and precise method of genetic manipulation.

How does CRISPR-Cas9 work?

The CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing tool uses a guide-RNA (gRNA) designed to find and bind to a specific part of the target genome.
The gRNA directs an enzyme, Cas9, to the target site, which is followed by a short DNA sequence called protospacer adjacent motif (PAM).
Cas9 recognises and binds to the PAM sequence, and acts as a molecular scissor that snips some damaged DNA.
This automatically triggers the cell’s DNA repair system, which repairs the snipped part to insert the correct DNA sequence.

What is the “off-target” issue of CRISPR-Cas9?

CRISPR-Cas9 system at times recognise and cut parts of the genome other than the intended portion.
Such “off-target” effects are more common when using the SpCas9 enzyme derived from Streptococcus pyogenes bacteria.

What is FnCas9?

FnCas9 protein is a recombinant Cas9 protein derived from a type II-B Francisella novicida Cas9 and expressed in E. coli.
While FnCas9, is highly precise, it has a drawback of being low in efficiency.
Researchers from CSIR-IGIB modified and engineered new versions of FnCas9 by tinkering with amino acids in FnCas9 that recognise and interact with the PAM sequence on the host genome.
Enhanced FnCas9 cut target DNA at a higher rate with increased the binding affinity compared to unmodified FnCas9.
An enhanced FnCas9-based diagnostic could target almost twice the number of changes compared to FnCas9, increasing the scope of detecting more disease-causing genetic changes.

5. Remittances to India Projected to Reach $160 Billion by 2029: RBI

Sub: Eco

Sec: Inflation and unemployment

Current and Projected Remittance Levels:

Remittances to India are expected to rise to $160 billion by 2029, up from $115 billion in 2023, according to the RBI’s latest Report on Currency and Finance (RCF).
India is the world’s largest recipient of remittances, accounting for 13.5% of the global total.

Significance to India’s Economy:

The remittances-GDP ratio for India has grown from 2.8% in 2000 to 3.2% in 2023.
This ratio now surpasses the ratio of gross FDI inflows to GDP, which was 1.9% in 2023, indicating the significant role of remittances in bolstering India’s external sector.

Labour Market Dynamics:

India is positioned to become the leading global supplier of labor as its working-age population is expected to grow until 2048, even as this demographic is declining in major advanced economies.
This trend, coupled with the ongoing skill upgradation of the workforce, is likely to sustain high demand for Indian workers abroad, boosting inward remittances.

Impact of Digitalisation:

The cost of sending remittances globally has decreased over time, largely due to digitalisation, making it easier and cheaper for the diaspora to send money back to India.

These insights from the RBI’s report underline the growing importance of remittances to India’s economy and the potential for continued growth driven by demographic trends and digital advancements.

6. Private Sector Fuels Growth of NPS Assets

Sub: Eco

Sec: Inflation and unemployment

Overall NPS Growth:

As of July 20, National Pension System (NPS) assets reached ₹12.69 lakh crore, reflecting a 28.33% year-on-year (YoY) increase, according to the latest PFRDA data.
In the fiscal year 2023-24, NPS assets saw a robust 30.5% YoY growth, reaching ₹11.73 lakh crore by the end of March 2024.

Private Sector Contribution:

The private sector significantly contributed to this growth, with NPS assets in this sector growing by a remarkable 39.62% YoY as of July 20, totaling ₹2.52 lakh crore.
The number of subscribers in the private sector rose to 57.44 lakh, an increase of 9.12 lakh YoY.

Atal Pension Yojana (APY) Performance:

APY assets reached ₹38,827 crore as of July 20, representing a 31.03% increase.
The Pension Fund Regulatory & Development Authority (PFRDA) onboarded 1.2 crore APY subscribers in the fiscal year 2023-24, with a target of 1.3 crore for the current fiscal year.
So far, there has been a net addition of approximately 20 lakh APY subscribers this fiscal year.

Future Projections:

PFRDA stated that the pension regulator aims to reach overall NPS assets of ₹15 lakh crore by March 2025.
New registrations for the National Pension Scheme and APY subscribers till July 23 in the current fiscal year stood at 2,58,957.

These points highlight the robust growth in NPS assets, particularly driven by the private sector, along with the expansion of APY, indicating strong participation and confidence in India’s pension schemes.

7. Can States Tax Mining Activities?

Sub: Eco

Sec: Fiscal Policy

Recent Supreme Court Ruling:

On July 25, the Supreme Court affirmed that States have the legislative authority to impose taxes on minerals in addition to the royalty levied by the Centre.
This ruling, delivered in an 8:1 decision, emphasized the principles of federalism.
It clarified that the power of State legislatures to tax mineral activities is not constrained by Parliament’s Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 (1957 Act).
Chief Justice of India (CJI) D.Y. Chandrachud authored the majority opinion, with Justice B.V. Nagarathna dissenting, concerned about potential negative impacts on mineral resource development.

Case Background:

Section 9 of the 1957 Act requires mining leaseholders to pay royalty for extracted minerals.
The key issue was whether royalties are classified as “tax” and which entity (Centre or States) has the authority to impose such charges.
The dispute began with India Cement Ltd challenging a cess imposed by Tamil Nadu, arguing it effectively taxed royalties, which they contended was beyond the State’s legislative power.

Historical Precedents:

A seven-judge Bench in 1989 ruled that States could collect royalties but not impose additional taxes on mining activities.
The ruling was based on the Union’s overriding authority under Entry 54 of the Union List to regulate mines.
A five-judge Bench in 2004 questioned the 1989 ruling but could not amend it due to the smaller bench size.
The issue was referred to a nine-judge Bench in 2011 due to conflicting judgments.

Royalty vs. Tax:

The Supreme Court distinguished royalty as a “contractual consideration” paid by the mining lessee to the lessor for mineral extraction rights.
In contrast, a tax is an “imposition by a sovereign authority” and can only be levied by public authorities for public funding.
Royalties are not classified as taxes, hence they do not fall under the category of “taxes on mineral rights” in Entry 50 of the State List.

Legal Provisions and State Authority:

Entry 50 of the State List grants States the authority to legislate on “taxes on mineral rights”, subject to any laws Parliament enacts on mineral development.
Entry 54 of the Union List provides the Centre with the power to regulate mines and mineral development.
The 1957 Act does not prevent States from imposing taxes on mineral rights, although Parliament can set limitations or prohibitions.

Dissenting Opinion:

Justice Nagarathna argued that royalties under the 1957 Act should be considered a tax, emphasizing the Act’s intention to promote mineral development.
She warned that allowing States to impose additional levies could lead to uncoordinated and uneven increases in mineral costs, potentially disrupting market stability.

Next Steps:

The court will decide on July 31 whether the ruling should apply retroactively or prospectively, impacting potential financial benefits for mineral-rich States such as West Bengal, Odisha, and Jharkhand.

Background:

Royalties and Their Nature:
- Royalties are payments made to the owner of a product for the right to use that product. In mining, royalties are fees paid by entities holding mining leases to the landowner, which can be the state government.
- The debate over whether royalties constitute a tax has been ongoing, with previous legal interpretations causing confusion.
Historical Context:
- In the India Cement case, the Supreme Court mistakenly labeled royalties as taxes, leading to legal debates that were later revisited in the 2004 State of West Bengal v. Kesoram Industries Ltd. case, which attempted to correct the error but could not overrule the earlier decision due to the smaller size of the bench.
Recent Clarification:
- The recent ruling in the Mineral Area Development Authority case clarified the nature of royalties, resolving ambiguities and affirming that royalties are not taxes.

About MMDRA 1957:

The Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 regulates the mining sector in India. It outlines procedures for granting mining rights, classifies minerals, and aims for sustainable development and management of mineral resources.

8. Centre Likely to Move ILO Against India Employment Report

Sub: Eco

Sec: Inflation and unemployment

Context:

India, a founding member of the International Labour Organization (ILO), is reportedly considering raising a complaint against the UN agency regarding its India Employment Report, 2024.
Report Details:
- Released in March 2024, the report by the ILO and the Institute of Human Development (IHD) claims that 83% of India’s unemployed workforce comprises youth.
- The report also highlights that the proportion of unemployed youth with secondary or higher education has nearly doubled from 35.2% in 2000 to 65.7% in 2022.
Government’s Response:
- A senior official from the Union Labour Ministry expressed concerns that the ILO’s model for assessing employment does not accurately reflect India’s situation.
- The Ministry plans to address these concerns with the ILO, noting that India’s employment landscape includes a growing number of entrepreneurs and formal employment, as evidenced by increased participation in the Employees’ Provident Fund Organisation and the Employees’ State Insurance Corporation.
Data Discrepancy:
- The Indian government has previously questioned the accuracy of data from private agencies like the Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE).
- The government prefers data from the Periodic Labour Force Surveys, which it claims provides a more accurate depiction of India’s employment situation.
Official Statement:
- Minister of State for Labour mentioned in the Lok Sabha that the unemployment rate for youth in India is showing a declining trend.
- The government emphasizes that employment generation and improving employability are key priorities, with various initiatives being undertaken to address these issues.

9. SC declines to grant interim stay of Patna HC decision quashing 65% quota in Bihar

Subject: Polity

Sec: Constitution

Context:

The Supreme Court refused to order interim stay of a Patna High Court decision quashing reservation up to 65% for Backward Classes, Extremely Backward Classes, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in public employment and institutions

More on News:

The High Court had concluded that stretching quota from 50% to 65% in government jobs and educational institutions, leaving only 35%, for merit was violative of the right to equal opportunity for citizens.
The High Court had set aside the Bihar Reservation of Vacancies in Posts and Services (for Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes) Amendment Act, 2023 and The Bihar (In admission in Educational Institutions) Reservation (Amendment) Act, 2023 as ultra vires the constitution and violative of equality clause under Articles 14, 15 and 16 of the Constitution.

Bihar Reservation Laws:

These laws are the Bihar Reservation of Vacancies in Posts and Services (for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes) Amendment Act-2023 and the Bihar (in admission in educational institutions) Reservation Amendment Act, 2023.
Under the amended Act, there will be a total of 65% reservation in both the cases, including 20% for Scheduled Castes, 2% for Scheduled Tribes,18% for Backward Classes and 25% for Extremely Backward Classes.
Apart from this, EWS (people from economically weaker general category) already approved under the Central Act will continue to get 10 % reservation.

Reservation:

Reservation is a form of positive discrimination, created to promote equality among marginalised sections and to protect them from social and historical injustice.
It gives preferential treatment to marginalised sections of society in employment and access to education.
It was also originally developed to correct years of discrimination and to give a boost to disadvantaged groups.

Constitutional Provisions Related to Reservations in India:

Part XVI of the Constitution of India deals with the reservation of SC and ST in Central and State legislatures.
Right to equality (Articles 14–18)
Article 15 of the Constitution empowers the State to make the following provisions:
- Article 15(3)provides special provision for women and children.
- Article 15(4) and Article 15(5)provides special provision for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the SCs and the STs, including their admission to educational institutions, including private ones.
Article 15(6)provides special provisions for the advancement of Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) any of citizens other than the classes mentioned in clauses (4) and (5).
Article 16 provides for the grounds of positive discrimination or Reservation in government jobs.
- Article 16(4)provides for the reservation of appointments or posts in favour of any backward class of citizens.
- Article 16(4A)provides for reservation in promotion for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
  - The Constitution was amended by the Constitution (77^thAmendment) Act, 1995 and a new clause (4A) was inserted in Article 16 to enable the government to provide reservation in promotion.
  - Later, 16(4A)was modified by the Constitution (85^th Amendment) Act, 2001 to provide consequential seniority to SC and ST candidates promoted by giving reservation.
- Article 16 (4B)allows states to consider unfilled reserved vacancies from a previous year meant for SCs and STs.
  - It was inserted by the 81^stConstitutional Amendment Act, 2000.
- Article 16(6)provides for the reservation of appointments or posts in favour of any Economically Weaker Sections (EWS).
Article 233Tprovides reservation of seats for SCs and STs in every Municipality.
Article 243Dprovides reservation of seats for SCs and STs in every Panchayat.
Article 335of the constitution says that the claims of STs and STs shall be taken into consideration consistently with the maintenance of efficacy of the administration.
Articles 330and 332 provide for specific representation through the reservation of seats for SCs and STs in the Parliament and State Legislative Assemblies

10. Any further delay in Census taking is perilous

Subject: Polity

Sec: Msc

Context:

When the Centre did not extend the deadline of June 30, 2024 to freeze administrative boundaries for the purpose of the Census, hopes were raised that the decennial Census operations, initially scheduled to begin in 2020 as a prelude to Census 2021, would at least commence in October 2024.

An absolute necessity:

Conducting the Census on a priority basis is a must, as in the absence of a Census after 2011, a majority of our country’s population is unable to access several schemes, benefits and services.
Moreover, the implementation of the women’s Reservation Act passed in the Parliament last year, reserving 33% of seats in Parliament and Assemblies for women, awaits the conduct of the Census.
It is imperative that sufficient provisions are made in the 2025-26 Census Budget so that the 2021 Census that has been postponed could be held at the earliest, in 2026, on completion of the first phase in 2025 that would include house listing and housing census and updating of the National Population Register (NPR).
The preliminary arrangements for the Census, such as preparing updated maps and lists of administrative areas, pre-testing draft Census questionnaires, training of officers and core staff, who would train the large number of field staff in collecting the Census data digitally, i.e., on mobile app, planning the field work, logistics, budgeting have all been taking place in the Census Directorates in States and Union Territories for the past few years in anticipation of putting through a Census.
The Constitution (Eighty fourth Amendment) Act of 2001 was specifically made so as not to have delimitation of the constituencies till the first Census conducted after 2026.

Clarifications:

To create a comprehensive database of usual residents in the country, the NPR with details of persons usually residing in villages and towns and other rural and urban areas was first prepared in 2010 during the Houselisting and Housing Census phase of Census 2011. It was updated in 2015 incorporating changes due to birth, death and migration. This process was put through under the Citizenship Act, 1955.

Delimitation:

Delimitation means the process of fixing the number of seats and boundaries of territorial constituencies in each State for the Lok Sabha and Legislative assemblies.
- It also includes determining the seats to be reserved for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST)in these houses.
This ‘delimitation process’ is performed by the “Delimitation Commission” that is set up under an act of Parliament.
- Delimitation Commissions have been set up four times — 1952, 1963, 1973 and 2002under the Acts of 1952, 1962, 1972 and 2002.
  - The first delimitation exercise was carried out by the President (with the help of the Election Commission) in 1950-51.

The 84^th Amendment Act of 2001 empowered the government to undertake readjustment and rationalisation of territorial constituencies in the states on the basis of the population figures of 1991 census.

National Population Register:

NPR is a database containing a list of all usual residents of the country.
- A usual resident for the purposes of NPR is a person who has resided in a place for six months or more and intends to reside there for another six months or more.
Its objective is to have a comprehensive identity database of people residing in the country.
- It is generated through house-to-house enumeration during the “house-listing” phase of the Census.
NPR was first collected in 2010. It was updated in 2015 and already has details of 119 crore residents.
- In March 2020, the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) amended the Census Rules framed in 1990 to capture and store the Census data in an electronic form and enabled self-enumeration by respondents.

11. Athletes worldwide turn to genetic screening for improved performance. Experts, though, caution against over-reliance on this emerging science

Subject: Sci

Sec: Health

Context:

After winning seven gold medals in Commonwealth Games, 41-year-old table tennis player Sharath Kamal left no stone unturned in his preparations for the 2024 Paris Olympics, which began on July 26.

More on News:

Genetic screening, an emerging science that is becoming popular among sportspersons.
The tests informed of food allergies and the minerals and vitamins his body needed.
In 2017, the Board of Control for Cricket in India reportedly introduced genetic testing to help the Indian men’s cricket team improve speed, fat-burning, endurance, recovery time and muscle-building.
These tests were introduced in India around 2011.

Genetic test:

Genetic tests, initially used for detecting diseases or predispositions, entered the sporting world in the late 1990s, when scientists began to gather evidence that genes influence various aspects of athletic performance, including endurance, flexibility and psychological traits.
Genetic tests read instructions stored in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), a two-metre-long molecule present in our cells.
The code in our DNA maintains our bodies’ functions, determines our appearance and influences our likelihood of developing certain diseases.
Genetic data consists of four letters or chemicals—Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine and Thymine—repeated in specific sequences.
These sequences are read by cellular machinery to create amino acids, the building blocks of proteins.
Some athletes have won the genetic lottery, prompting scientists to probe the role of genes in athletic prowess.
Scientists study genetic variants, which are differences that arise from mutations in specific DNA sequences.
These mutations contribute to unique athletic characteristics and traits.

Decoding DNA

Fifty years after the structure of DNA was first decoded, former US President Bill Clinton and former British Prime Minister Tony Blair announced a significant scientific achievement in 2000: the initial sequencing of the human genome as part of the Human Genome Project, launched in October 1990.
Within 24 hours of this announcement, the information was made publicly available, allowing scientists worldwide to begin decoding the mysteries of human biology
In 1998, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) gene, involved in the control of blood pressure and skeletal muscle function, first captured scientists’ attention.
A 2002 study that a variant of this gene, ACE-I, was linked to endurance performance, giving runners, rowers and mountaineers an edge over others. The study found another variant, ACE-D, associated with strength gain, essential for weightlifting.
Another gene linked to sports performance is alpha-actinin 3 (ACTN3). This gene produces the ACTN3 protein found in skeletal muscle tissue, particularly in type 2 or “fast-twitch” muscle fibres. These fibres are known for generating short, powerful movements.
Lactose intolerant: These tests can also identify specific food allergies and recommend dietary adjustments to improve performance.