Daily Prelims Notes 31 August 2024

August 31, 2024
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Daily Prelims Notes

31 August 2024

Table Of Contents

Recommendations for Afforestation: Focus on Indigenous Species and Ban on Harmful Exotics
India plans $15 billion second push for chipmaking.
Account aggregator framework, ULI, OCEN to redefine credit access to small firms, individuals
Sign MoU for PM SHRI: Pradhan responds to Stalin letter for Samagra Shiksha funds
China reasserts its claims in regional disputes, pushes rivals’ limits
Shift to Organic Farming: Amit Shah Advocates for Health Benefits and Economic Growth
Controversy Over Shivaji Statue Collapse: PM Modi’s Apology and Political Reactions

1. Recommendations for Afforestation: Focus on Indigenous Species and Ban on Harmful Exotics

Sub: Env

Sec: Species in news

Why in News

The Forest Department’s recent advisory emphasizes enhancing green cover by promoting the planting of indigenous plant species and discontinuing the use of three exotic species deemed harmful. This move is part of a broader effort to improve environmental health and maintain ecological balance.

Key Recommendations and Advisory

Afforestation Goals

Objective: Increase green cover to exceed 33% of the state’s geographical area.
Approach: Focus on planting indigenous tree species that are better suited to local conditions.

Ban on Harmful Exotic Species

Species Targeted:
- Conocarpus erectus (Buttonwood Mangrove): Controversial due to alleged negative effects on groundwater and human health.
- Alstonia scholaris (Devil’s Tree): Known for its robust growth but associated with gastrointestinal issues and other ailments.
- Terminalia mantaly (Umbrella Tree/Madagascar Almond): Expensive to maintain and vulnerable in cyclone-prone areas.
Rationale: These species have more ornamental value than functional benefits and pose various risks to health and the environment.

Focus on Indigenous Plant Species

Recommended Species

Azadirachta indica (Neem)

Native: Indian subcontinent
Majorly Found: Throughout India, Southeast Asia
Characteristics: Known for its medicinal properties, used in traditional medicine and as a natural pesticide. Thrives in tropical and subtropical climates.

Tamarindus indica (Tamarind)

Native: Africa, but cultivated widely in tropical regions
Majorly Found: India, Southeast Asia, and tropical regions worldwide
Characteristics: Provides edible fruit and shade. The fruit is used in culinary dishes and traditional medicine.

Ficus bengalensis (Banyan)

Native: Indian subcontinent
Majorly Found: India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka
Characteristics: Known for its aerial roots and large canopy. Important for its ecological role in providing habitat and stabilizing soil.

Ficus religiosa (Peepal)

Native: Indian subcontinent
Majorly Found: India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia
Characteristics: Sacred in Hindu and Buddhist traditions. Has significant health benefits and is used in traditional medicine.

Pongamia pinnata (Pongam)

Native: Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia
Majorly Found: India, Sri Lanka, Thailand
Characteristics: Provides oil used in biodiesel and traditional medicine. Beneficial for reforestation and erosion control.

Millingtonia hortensis (Tuba)

Native: Indian subcontinent
Majorly Found: India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar
Characteristics: Known for its fragrant flowers and ecological benefits. Often used in ornamental landscaping.

Mimusops elengi (Pogada)

Native: Indian subcontinent
Majorly Found: India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar
Characteristics: Provides edible fruit and shade. The tree is valued for its medicinal properties and ornamental use.

Syzygium cumini (Jamun)

Native: Indian subcontinent
Majorly Found: India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka
Characteristics: Known for its dark purple fruit with health benefits, including antidiabetic properties. Commonly used in traditional medicine.

Terminalia arjuna (Arjuna)

Native: Indian subcontinent
Majorly Found: India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka
Characteristics: Valued for its medicinal properties, particularly in treating cardiovascular diseases. It is used in Ayurvedic medicine.

Mangifera indica (Mango)

Native: Indian subcontinent
Majorly Found: India, Southeast Asia
Characteristics: Fruit-bearing tree known for its sweet, edible fruit. Culturally significant and economically important in tropical regions.

Controversial Plant Species

Conocarpus erectus (Buttonwood Mangrove)

Growth Characteristics: Rapid-growing, thrives in saline environments.
Ecological Impact: Often planted for its adaptability and ornamental value but criticized for potential groundwater depletion.
Health Concerns: Alleged to cause respiratory issues, cold, cough, and allergies during winters.
Legal Status: Currently the subject of a public interest litigation (PIL) questioning its environmental impact.

Alstonia scholaris (Devil’s Tree)

Growth Characteristics: Robust and fast-growing, often used for shade.
Toxic Effects: Contains alkaloids that can cause gastrointestinal irritations and other health issues.
Uses: Historically valued for its medicinal properties and timber, but health risks have led to concerns.
Maintenance Issues: Less suitable for areas with high human activity due to its toxic nature.

Terminalia mantaly (Umbrella Tree/Madagascar Almond)

Growth Characteristics: Ornamental tree with a broad canopy, often used in landscaping.
Maintenance: Expensive to maintain due to high water and nutrient needs.
Cyclone Vulnerability: Susceptible to damage in cyclone-prone regions, making it less ideal for such areas.
Uses: Valued for its decorative appeal but less functional as a shade tree compared to other species.

2. India plans $15 billion second push for chipmaking.

Subject: Eco

Sec: National Income

Context:

The government plans to increase the funding outlay for the second phase of its chip manufacturing incentive policy to $15 billion from the $10 billion it had committed for the first phase.

More on News:

Tata is building India’s first commercial fabrication plant along with its Taiwanese partner Power chip Semiconductor Manufacturing Corporation (PSMC) for a cost of more than Rs 91,000 crore.
The government has also approved three assembly and testing plants, which are called ATMP and OSAT in chip parlance.
The assembly and testing plants are less complex than the semiconductor fabrication plant.
The first of these three plants was approved in June 2023, and is being built by US-based Micron Technology.

Why chipmaking prowess matters

India currently has virtually no footprint in manufacturing semiconductor chips.
The bulk of the global chip production happens in countries like Taiwan and the United States. Domestic fabrication plants will boost India’s economic and strategic imperatives.
India hopes to seek out opportunities to boost the local industry with help from government-funded schemes.
Tata-PSMC fab will not produce cutting-edge nodes, which requires a level of technology that is not available with either of these companies.
The entry barriers to chip manufacturing are quite high, as China, which has poured a lot of money into its Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation (SMIC), has discovered.
An enormous amount of technological innovation is needed to manufacture chips of smaller node sizes, which is an area in which companies such as the Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company Ltd (TSMC) have a massive advantage.

Semiconductor Chip:

A semiconductor has properties between a conductor (which conducts electricity) and an insulator (which does not).
Purest form a semiconductor is a very weak conductor of electricity.
However, its electrical properties can be changed by adding small amounts of certain substances called ‘dopants’.
Complex circuits are “printed” on the semiconductor by strategically placing dopants.

Transistor:

A transistor is a versatile electronic component built using a semiconductor.
It can function as an electronic switch, amplifier, or part of high-frequency signal circuits.

Need for Semiconductor Manufacturing in India:

Reducing imports: Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong, Thailand, and Vietnam are the only countries from which India imports all of its chips.
Atmanirbharta: India’s semiconductor industry would benefit domestic businesses by reducing their reliance on imports and by generating income from exports to other nations.
Drivers of ICT Development: India has to grow its ICT (Information and Communications Technology) industry to take advantage of the fourth industrial revolution. Semiconductors are crucial to this process.
National Security: They are employed in vital infrastructures that affect national security, including the transmission of power and communications.
Strategic Autonomy: By reducing India’s reliance on other nations for essential technology, domestic semiconductor manufacturers can increase the country’s strategic

3. Account aggregator framework, ULI, OCEN to redefine credit access to small firms, individuals

Subject: Eco

Sec: Monetary Policy

Context:

Initiatives like the Account Aggregator framework, Unified Lending Interface (ULI), Open Credit Enablement Network (OCEN) would help redefine credit access, particularly for small businesses and individuals, Reserve Bank of India (RBI) Governor Shaktikanta Das said at the Global FinTech Fest 2024.

More on News:

The Reserve Bank’s regulatory frameworks have facilitated new and innovative businesses to grow in an orderly manner.
These regulatory initiatives reflect our commitment to support innovation with prudence.
Collaboration between policymakers, regulators, and innovators was the defining element of India’s fintech journey.
The success stories in India’s fintech space – like Aadhar, UPI, and Digilocker – were the results of such collaborative efforts.
Stating that digital technologies had been instrumental in expanding financial inclusion, improving efficiency, and enabling real-time services across the country, India now stood as a global leader in digital payments, a feat achieved by combining proactive policymaking with innovation and technological advancements.

Account Aggregator Network:

The Account Aggregator (AA) Network is a framework for consent-based financial data sharing that would allow individuals and small businesses to “access, control, and share personal data” with third-party institutions.
The Draft Data Empowerment and Protection Architecture (DEPA) framework released by NITI Aayog serves as the foundation for AA’s architecture.

Account Aggregator Network Components:

The financial data sharing architecture has 3 important elements as follows:

Financial Information Providers (FIP)
Financial Information Users (FIU
Account Aggregator (AA)

Unified Lending Interface (ULI):

ULI is a digital platform that is expected to make the lending process easy.
It would enable friction-less credit while delivering banking services to farmers and MSME borrowers.

Features of ULI:

Consent-Based Digital Access: ULI will provide lenders with digital access to both financial and non-financial data of customers, including land records, through a consent-based system.

Potential Benefits:

Frictionless Credit: ULI aims to facilitate a smoother lending experience by minimising paperwork, particularly for smaller and rural borrowers.
Reduced Appraisal Time: By consolidating data from various sources, ULI will minimise the time required for credit evaluation.
Centralised Data Access: The platform will consolidate financial and non-financial data from multiple sources, making it easily accessible to lenders.
Focus on Agriculture and MSMEs: ULI is expected to address the large unmet demand for credit in sectors such as agriculture and MSMEs.

Open Credit Enablement Network (OCEN):

OCEN is a framework of APIs designed to streamline and enhance the efficiency of the lending process in India. It facilitates interactions between lenders, Loan Service Providers (LSPs), and account aggregators, simplifying the flow of credit to underserved segments like MSMEs, small shop owners, and rural entrepreneurs.

4. Sign MoU for PM SHRI: Pradhan responds to Stalin letter for Samagra Shiksha funds

Subject: Schemes

Sec: Education

Context:

After Tamil Nadu Chief Minister M K Stalin wrote to Prime Minister Narendra Modi earlier this week asking the Centre to expedite the release of its share to the state under the Samagra Shiksha scheme, Education Minister Dharmendra Pradhan responded urging him to sign a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the Centre for the PM SHRI scheme and stating that the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 “fully supports the idea of teaching Tamil in the schools of Tamil Nadu.”

PM SHRI Scheme:

Centrally sponsored scheme by the Government of India.
Its objective is to establish over 14,500 PM SHRI Schools, overseen by the Central Government, State/UT Governments, local bodies, as well as Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan (KVS) and Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti (NVS).
These schools aim to create an inclusive and welcoming atmosphere for every student, ensuring their well-being and providing a secure and enriching learning environment.
The goal is to offer a diverse range of learning experiences and ensure access to good physical infrastructure and appropriate resources for all students.
This aligns with the vision of the National Education Policy 2020, striving to build a society characterized by equity, inclusivity, and pluralism.

Features of PM SHRI Schools:

These schools will not only focus on enhancing cognitive development but also creating holistic and well-rounded individuals equipped with key 21st-century skills.
The pedagogy adopted in these schools will be more experiential, holistic, integrated, play/toy-based (particularly in the foundational years), inquiry-driven, discovery-oriented, learner-centred, discussion-based, flexible, and enjoyable.
The schools will be upgraded with labs, libraries, and art rooms. They will be developed as green schools with water conservation, waste recycling, energy-efficient infrastructure, and integration of the organic lifestyle as part of the curriculum.
The focus will be on the learning outcomes of every child in every grade.
Assessment at all levels will be based on conceptual understanding and application of knowledge to real-life situations and will be competency-based.
A School Quality Assessment Framework (SQAF) is being developed, specifying the key performance indicators to measure outcomes. A quality evaluation of these schools at regular intervals will be undertaken to ensure the desired standards.
The duration of the scheme is from 2022-23 to 2026-27, after which it shall be the responsibility of the States/UTs to continue to maintain the benchmarks achieved by these schools.
The selection of PM SHRI schools will be done through Challenge Mode, wherein schools compete for support to become exemplar schools.

Samagra Shiksha Scheme:

It supports implementation of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009 and National Education Policy (NEP) 2020.
The scheme has been extended for a period of five years i.e., from 2021-22 to 2025-26.
The Samagra Shiksha scheme is an integrated scheme for school education covering the entire gamut from pre-school to class XII.
The scheme treats school education as a continuum and is in accordance with Sustainable Development Goal for Education (SDG-4).
The scheme aims to ensure that all children have access to quality education with an equitable and inclusive classroom environment.

5. China reasserts its claims in regional disputes, pushes rivals’ limits

Sub: IR

Sec: Places in news

Context:

China in recent years has asserted its claims in the long-running disputes far more boldly as its military strength has grown.

Chinese action in recent times:

China has taken confrontational action in its claims across the South China sea, East China sea and Taiwan in recent months.
China has in recent months deployed military and coast guard vessels in a bid to eject the Philippines from strategically important reefs and islands in the South China Sea.
In June, Chinese coast guard personnel confronted Philippine vessels near the disputed Second Thomas Shoal.
The latest incident took place in Sabina shoal, where China took measures against two Philippine Coast Guard ships, claiming they entered “illegally”.

Rationale behind China’s aggression:

According to experts, this campaign of confrontation, from remote reefs in South China sea to Taiwan and far-flung Japanese islands, is designed to wear down regional rivals competing with it for contested territories.
These moves reflect China’s broader strategy to expand its regional influence in the long run.
The recent incidents have come as the Philippines has strengthened ties with traditional ally the United States, with which it has a mutual defence treaty.

Chinese strategy in South China sea:

China has for years sought to expand its power in the South China Sea, brushing aside an international ruling that its claim to most of the waterway has no legal basis.
It has built artificial islands armed with missile systems and runways for fighter jets, and deployed vessels that the Philippines says harass its ships and block its fishers.
In 2012, Beijing seized control of Scarborough Shoal, a contested area close to the Philippines.
Recent incidents of aggression can be seen as a part of China’s broader strategy to expand influence in the region.

6. Shift to Organic Farming: Amit Shah Advocates for Health Benefits and Economic Growth

Sub : Schemes

Sec: Agri

Why This Is in the News

Union Home and Cooperation Minister Amit Shah has emphasized the health risks associated with chemical fertilizers and promoted organic farming as a solution.

This announcement highlights the government’s commitment to enhancing public health and boosting the organic farming sector.

The recent signing of a memorandum of understanding (MoU) between the National Co-operative Organics Ltd. (NCOL) and the Uttarakhand Organic Commodity Board (UOCB) marks a significant step in this initiative.

Health Risks of Chemical Fertilizers

Health Impacts: Union Home and Cooperation Minister highlighted that chemicals in fertilizers are linked to various health issues including hypertension, diabetes, thyroid disorders, and cancer.

Organic Farming: He stressed that organic farming is crucial for the health of India’s 140 crore citizens.

Government Initiative and Collaborations

MoU Signing: An MoU was signed between NCOL and UOCB to promote organic farming.

Government Officials Present: The event was attended by Minister of State for Cooperation Krishna Pal Gurjar, Uttarakhand Agriculture and Farmers Welfare Minister Ganesh Joshi, and Ashish Kumar Bhutani, Secretary of the Ministry of Cooperation.

Role of Cooperatives and Market Expansion

Importance of Cooperatives: He emphasized the role of cooperatives in making India a leading producer of organic food.

Global Market: There is a significant global demand for organic products, and increasing India’s market share can boost farmers’ income.

Addressing Quality Concerns

Quality Assurance: The Modi government established NCOL to address issues with organic product quality. NCOL and Amul will set up international-level laboratories to test organic products and land.

Consumer Trust: Reliable organic products will be marketed under the ‘Bharat’ and ‘Amul’ brands.

National Co-operative Organics Ltd. (NCOL)

Establishment: NCOL was established by the Government of India in 2021 as a cooperative entity aimed at revolutionizing the organic farming sector in India.

Headquarters: The organization’s headquarters is located in New Delhi, India.

Objective: To enhance the quality and marketability of organic products through a structured certification process and quality assurance systems.

Financial Benefits for Farmers

Profit Distribution: NCOL will ensure that profits from organic products are directly transferred to farmers’ bank accounts, a process facilitated by the cooperative setup.

Future Outlook: In the next 2-3 years, ‘Bharat’ brand products will encompass a wide range of vegetarian foods.

Fertilizer Industry in India

Second Largest Consumer: India is the second-largest consumer of urea globally, after China.

Production Rank: India is the second-largest producer of nitrogenous fertilizers.

Core Industry: The fertilizer industry is classified as one of the eight core industries in India.

Subsidy Impact: Fertilizer subsidies represent the second-largest subsidy expenditure by the Indian government, following food subsidies.

Import Dependency: India meets its demand for potash primarily through imports.

Usage of Fertilizers in India:

Soil Deficiencies: Indian soils generally suffer from low organic carbon content and widespread nitrogen deficiency. Phosphorus and potassium levels are typically low to medium, and sulfur deficiencies have become more common over time.

Growth in Consumption: Fertilizer consumption in India has surged from less than 1 million tonnes of total nutrients in the mid-1960s to nearly 17 million tonnes in recent years. This growth is largely attributed to the introduction of high-yielding crop varieties in the 1960s.

Import Dependency: Currently, India imports about 25% of its urea requirements, 90% of its phosphate requirements, and 100% of its potash requirements.

Regional Disparities: Fertilizer consumption intensity varies significantly across regions, with consumption rates ranging from 40.5 kg/ha of total nutrients in Rajasthan to 184 kg/ha in Punjab.

Composition: Urea constitutes 82% of total nitrogen consumption, while di-ammonium phosphate (DAP) accounts for 63% of phosphorus consumption.

Organic Farming in India:

Organic Farming Areas: India has seen significant growth in organic farming areas, with states like Sikkim being a pioneer in becoming the first fully organic state in India.

Government Initiatives: The Indian government has launched several schemes to promote organic farming, including the Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) and the National Project on Organic Farming (NPOF).

Certification Bodies: The National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP) provides certification for organic products in India, ensuring they meet national and international standards.

Organic Products Export: India is a major exporter of organic products, including tea, spices, and fruits. The country ranks among the top exporters of organic products globally.

Soil Health Management: The Soil Health Management (SHM) program aims to improve soil health through organic farming practices and the use of organic fertilizers.

Organic Farming Benefits: Organic farming helps improve soil fertility, enhance biodiversity, and reduce chemical pollution in the environment.

7. Controversy Over Shivaji Statue Collapse: PM Modi’s Apology and Political Reactions

Sub: History

Sec: Medieval India

Why in News?

The collapse of a 35-foot-tall statue of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj in Maharashtra’s Sindhudurg district on August 26 has sparked a significant political controversy. The incident has led to widespread criticism, allegations of corruption, and strong reactions from political leaders, making it a focal point of national attention.

Statue Collapse Incident

Location: Sindhudurg district, Maharashtra.
Date: August 26, 2024.
Purpose: The statue was meant to honor the Maratha Navy and Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj’s contribution to maritime defense, symbolizing historical ties with the modern Indian Navy.
Cause of Collapse: Rusting nuts and bolts were identified as the cause, with critics highlighting that warnings about the statue’s stability were ignored.

Shivaji Statue

Height and Material: 35-foot-tall statue made of bronze.

Location: Erected in Sindhudurg district, Maharashtra.

Purpose: Tribute to Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj’s naval legacy and connection to the modern Indian Navy.

Cause of Collapse: Rusted nuts and bolts compromised the statue’s stability.

Political Reactions

PM Modi’s Apology: During his visit to Maharashtra, PM Narendra Modi publicly apologized to Shivaji Maharaj and the people affected by the statue’s collapse.

The Prime Minister also discussed Veer Savarkar, highlighting his contributions and historical significance.

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj

Birth and Early Life

Date of Birth: February 19, 1630

Place of Birth: Shivneri Fort, Pune, Maharashtra

Parents: Shahaji Bhonsle (Maratha general) and Jijabai

Early Military Achievements: Captured Torna and Kondana forts in 1645.

Important Battles

Battle of Pratapgad (1659): Defeated Adilshahi general Afzal Khan.

Battle of Pavan Khind (1660): Baji Prabhu Deshpande resisted Siddi Masud of Adilshahi.

Sacking of Surat (1664): Attacked Mughal port city under Inayat Khan.

Battle of Purandar (1665): Conflict with the Mughal Empire.

Battle of Sinhagad (1670): Tanaji Malusare defeated Udaybhan Rathod.

Battle of Sangamner (1679): Last battle fought by Shivaji against the Mughal Empire.

Battle of Kalyan (1682-83): Bahadur Khan of the Mughal Empire defeated the Maratha army.

Conflict with Mughals

Early Raids: Raided Mughal territories near Ahmednagar and Junnar in 1657.

Major Defeats: Defeated by Nasiri Khan at Ahmednagar.

Surat Sack: Captured the Mughal port city in 1664.

Treaty of Purandar (1665): Signed with Raja Jai Singh I; agreed to cede forts and meet Aurangzeb.

Arrest and Escape

Agra Visit (1666): Insulted by Aurangzeb, Shivaji escaped from imprisonment with his son.

Coronation and Title

Coronation Date: June 6, 1674

Titles: Chhatrapati, Shakakarta, Kshatriya Kulavantas, Haindava Dharmodhhaarak

Death

Date of Death: April 3, 1680

Administration

Central Administration: Modelled on Deccan style; the king was supported by an advisory council called the ‘Ashtapradhan’.

Revenue System: Abolished Jagirdari System, introduced Ryotwari System, supervised Mirasdars, and used Chauth (25%) and Sardeshmukhi (10%) as income sources.

Military Organization: Established a disciplined army with infantry, cavalry, and navy; paid soldiers in cash and commanders with jagir grants.

Veer Savarkar:

Full Name: Vinayak Damodar Savarkar

Born: May 28, 1883, in Bhagur, Maharashtra, India

Died: February 26, 1966, in Bombay, India

Education: Studied at Fergusson College, Pune and Completed law studies in London

Political Activism:

Hindutva Ideology: Advocated for Hindutva as a form of nationalism.

Freedom Struggle: Played a prominent role in the Indian independence movement.
Assassination Attempt: Arrested for his alleged involvement in a conspiracy to assassinate a British official.

Imprisonment: Sentenced to life imprisonment in the Andaman Islands’ Cellular Jail from 1909 to 1924.

Related Organisations and Work:

Founded a secret society called Abhinav Bharat Society.
Went to the United Kingdom and was involved with organizations such as India House and the Free India Society.
Involved in the formation of Hindu Mahasabha.
He was the president of Hindu Mahasabha from 1937 to 1943.
Savarkar wrote a book titled ‘The History of the War of Indian Independence’ in which he wrote about the guerilla warfare tricks used in 1857 Sepoy Mutiny.
He also wrote the book ‘Hindutva: who is hindu?’.

Abhinav Bharat Society (Young India Society)

It was a secret society founded by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar and his brother Ganesh Damodar Savarkar in 1904.
Initially founded at Nasik as MitraMela, the society was associated with several revolutionaries and political activists with branches in various parts of India and London.

India House

It was founded by ShyamjiKishanVerma in 1905 in London.
It was opened to promote nationalist views among Indian students in London.

Free India Society

It was a political organization of Indian students in England, committed to obtaining the independence of India from British rule.
Initially an intellectual group, it became a revolutionary outfit under its founding leader, Madam BhikajiCama.

Hindu Mahasabha

It was a political party formed in 1933.
It was founded by Veer Damodar Savarkar, Lala Lajpat Rai, Madan Mohan Malviya.
The organisation was formed to protect the rights of the Hindu community, after the formation of the All-India Muslim League in 1906 and the British India government’s creation of separate Muslim electorate under the Morley-Minto reforms of 1909.