Daily Prelims Notes 5 March 2025

Daily Prelims Notes

5 March 2025

1. IMF Flags Risks from India’s NBFC Exposure to Power & Infra Sectors

SUB: ECO

SEC: MONETARY POLICY

Why in News?

• The International Monetary Fund (IMF), in its “India Financial System Stability Assessment” report, has highlighted systemic risks posed by Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) due to their high exposure to power & infrastructure sectors.
• The interconnectedness of NBFCs with banks, mutual funds, and corporate bond markets raises concerns about financial stability.

Key IMF Findings on NBFC Sector Risks

• High Exposure to Power & Infrastructure – 63% of power sector loans in FY24 were from 3 major infrastructure NBFCs (up from 55% in FY20). The power sector has structural inefficiencies (discom losses, delayed payments, project delays), increasing default risk.
• Heavy Reliance on Market Instruments & Bank Borrowings – 56% of NBFC lending is financed through market instruments (bonds, commercial papers), making them vulnerable to liquidity shocks. Growing dependence on banks for funding increases systemic risk (if NBFCs default, banks face losses).
• Limited Regulatory Support Compared to Banks – NBFCs cannot accept demand deposits (like banks) and do not have deposit insurance protection. No direct access to RBI’s liquidity window, making them more vulnerable to financial stress.
• Regulatory Gaps in State-Owned NBFCs – Government-backed Infrastructure Financing Companies (IFCs) hold one-third of total NBFC assets. Unlike private NBFCs, state-owned NBFCs are not subjected to large exposure limits, raising regulatory concerns.

Potential Systemic Risks

• Spillover Effect on Banks & Financial Markets – NBFC distress can trigger banking & financial crises: NBFC defaults → Rising NPAs in banks (which lend to NBFCs).
• Liquidity stress in mutual funds & corporate bond markets (NBFCs are major borrowers from these markets). Past examples: IL&FS & DHFL failures had widespread effects across financial markets.
• In a stagflation scenario (high inflation + low growth), PSBs may struggle to maintain a 9% Capital Adequacy Ratio (CAR). PSBs should retain earnings instead of paying dividends to the government to build stronger capital buffers.

2. Can RBI’s Proposal to Waive Foreclosure Charges Help MSMEs?

SUB: ECO

SEC: MONETARY POLICY

Why in News?

• The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has proposed waiving foreclosure charges and prepayment penalties on floating-rate loans taken by micro and small enterprises (MSEs). The move aims to improve access to affordable credit and enhance financial flexibility for MSEs.

Key Proposals by RBI

• No foreclosure charges or prepayment penalties on floating-rate loans up to ₹7.5 crore for MSEs. The waiver does not apply to Tier 1 and Tier 2 Primary (Urban) Cooperative Banks and NBFCs with assets under ₹1,000 crore.

How This Will Benefit MSMEs?

• Encourages MSMEs to Take Formal Loans: More businesses will enter the formal credit system due to lower costs.
• Reduces Loan Costs: Businesses can repay early without penalties, reducing overall borrowing costs.
• Improves Cash Flow Management: Easier switching between lenders allows MSMEs to access better financing terms.
• Enhances Credit Market Transparency: Eliminates hidden fees and promotes fair lending practices.

Challenges

• Lack of Awareness: Many MSMEs do not know about the waiver.
• Documentation Issues: Proving eligibility could be complex.
• Bureaucratic Delays: Loan switching and waiver claims may face processing hurdles.

Impact on Banks & NBFCs

• Increased Competition: MSMEs can move loans to better lenders, increasing competition in the credit market.
• Profitability Concerns: Banks and NBFCs may lose revenue from foreclosure charges.
• Adjustment in Loan Pricing: Some NBFCs may increase interest rates on new loans to offset the impact.

3. US report exposes CCP’s role in fuelling Fentanyl crisis, calls for urgent action

Sub : IR

Sec: Places in news

Context:

• A recent report by the US House Select Committee on the Strategic Competition between the United States and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) has exposed critical findings regarding the role of the CCP in the fentanyl crisis in the United States.
• The committee calls for urgent action, including the creation of a Joint Task Force, stricter sanctions, and enhanced enforcement to address the fentanyl crisis.
• Recently, President Donald Trump upheld his pledge to impose heavy tariffs on Canada, China, and Mexico for their inability to stop the flow of illicit fentanyl into the United States.

Details of the report:

• According to the report, nearly all illicit fentanyl precursors are produced by Chinese companies.
• These precursors are then trafficked internationally, particularly to Mexican cartels, which manufacture and distribute fentanyl within the United States.
• The trafficking network supports the opioid epidemic in the US, which has had devastating consequences on public health.

Role of Chinese Government in Fentanyl Trade:

• The investigation revealed that the Chinese government plays a role in supporting the production and export of fentanyl precursors. This is done through:
  • Tax incentives and subsidies for companies involved in the production of fentanyl precursors, despite these substances being prohibited under both US and Chinese laws.
  • Financial grants and recognition provided to businesses involved in the fentanyl trade, facilitating their operations.
• State-owned companies, including government-operated institutions such as prisons, were also found to have ownership stakes in firms involved in drug trafficking.

Hindering US Law Enforcement:

• The report further accuses Chinese officials of intentionally hindering US law enforcement efforts.
• In certain cases, Chinese authorities allegedly tipped off fentanyl manufacturers about American investigations, allowing these manufacturers to evade prosecution and continue their operations.
• While China is known to prosecute domestic drug trafficking aggressively, it has reportedly overlooked the activities of companies exporting illegal drugs, such as fentanyl, to foreign countries, including the United States.

Fentanyl Crisis in the United States:

• The fentanyl epidemic has become one of the most significant public health crises in the United States. Fentanyl is now the leading cause of death for Americans aged 18-45.
• The crisis has exacerbated overdose deaths and put tremendous strain on public health and law enforcement systems.

What is Fentanyl:

• Fentanyl is a synthetic opioid that is 50 to 100 times more potent than morphine and heroin.
• It is primarily used in medical settings for pain management, particularly for cancer patients and post-surgical pain.
• It is often abused in the form of illegally manufactured fentanyl or fentanyl-laced drugs, leading to severe health risks, including overdose and death.
• Users may seek fentanyl for its intense euphoric effects, similar to other opioids, such as heroin or prescription painkillers. Fentanyl is often mixed with heroin, cocaine, or counterfeit pills, increasing its availability and risk of abuse.
• Due to its high potency, fentanyl leads to rapid physical dependence and opioid addiction.

4. What is the current status of U.S.-Taiwan relations?

Sub : IR

Sec: Places in news

Context:

• In February 2025, the U.S. State Department issued an updated factsheet on Taiwan, marking a shift in U.S.-Taiwan relations. The updated factsheet no longer asserts that the U.S. does not support Taiwan’s independence, which has been a longstanding policy.
• It now emphasizes support for Taiwan’s membership in international organizations where applicable.
• This change, described as a routine update, was welcomed by Taiwan but strongly opposed by China.

U.S. policy on Taiwan:

• The Taiwan Relations Act (TRA), enacted in 1979, forms the cornerstone of U.S. policy on Taiwan.
• It states that the U.S. will maintain close commercial, cultural, and other relations with the people of Taiwan, while providing Taiwan with arms for defensive purposes.
• The TRA has facilitated regular U.S. arms sales to Taiwan, which has led to tensions with Beijing.

Trump’s Position on Taiwan

• During his presidency, Donald Trump exhibited unpredictability in his approach towards Taiwan and China.
• Trump suggested that Taiwan had stolen the chip industry from the U.S. and emphasized that Taiwan should pay the U.S. for its protection and increase its defence budget.
• Taiwan is in the process of negotiating an arms deal with the U.S. worth $7-10 billion and has raised its defence spending to 2.5% of GDP.

Historical Background:

• Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), was established in 1912 after the fall of the Qing Dynasty.
• In 1949, following the Chinese Civil War, the communist People’s Republic of China (PRC) was founded on the mainland, while the ROC government retreated to Taiwan.
• Since then, the PRC has claimed sovereignty over Taiwan, while Taiwan has maintained its independence and governance under the ROC, with both sides having separate political, economic, and military systems.

The One-China Policy:

• The PRC asserts the “One-China” principle, claiming Taiwan as part of its territory, and has vowed to reunify Taiwan with the mainland, by force if necessary.
• Most countries, including the United States, do not officially recognize Taiwan as a separate country but maintain unofficial relations and support Taiwan’s participation in international organizations.
• The U.S. adheres to the “One-China” policy but also supports Taiwan’s defence under the Taiwan Relations Act (TRA) of 1979.

Taiwan’s Vulnerable Position in the face of Chinese Aggression:

• China has consistently increased its military presence around Taiwan, conducting frequent military exercises across the Taiwan Strait and using tactics like spy balloons and cyber-attacks.
• President Xi Jinping has pursued a global narrative to isolate Taiwan diplomatically, with Taiwan now maintaining official relations with only 12 countries.
• For Xi Jinping, Taiwan represents a key component of national rejuvenation, while for the U.S., Taiwan is crucial as a semiconductor hub and a market for U.S. weapons.

5. Blue Ghost moon landing part of U.S. plan to dominate space

Sub : Sci

Sec: Space sector

Context:

• Firefly Aerospace successfully landed its uncrewed spacecraft, Blue Ghost, on the moon recently, marking a significant achievement in the global moon race.
• The mission is part of NASA’s Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) program, which contracts private companies to transport scientific instruments to the Moon.
• CLPS aims to expedite lunar exploration and foster private sector capacity for complex space missions.

Details:

• It marks the second time a private company has landed a spacecraft on the Moon, with Firefly’s mission being described as nearly flawless.
• The mission is part of a two-week research initiative designed to explore the lunar environment and test technologies that could pave the way for future lunar exploration.
• The Blue Ghost mission is a low-budget precursor to future research, aimed at preparing for upcoming U.S. crewed moon missions scheduled to begin in 2027as part of NASA’s Artemis program.

About the spacecraft:

• The Blue Ghost spacecraft, about the size of a compact car, is equipped with 10 scientific payloads designed for research on the moon’s surface, including instruments for robotic drilling, surface composition studies, and dust mitigation techniques.
• Payloads will operate for one lunar day (14 Earth days) and possibly extend into the lunar night with additional battery power.
• It landed near Mare Crisium, an ancient volcanic vent on the northeast cornerof the moon’s earth-facing side, about 20 degrees north of the lunar equator.
• The Blue Ghost mission launched from NASA’s Kennedy Space Centre in Florida atop a SpaceX
• Blue Ghost took on a winding path over three times around the earth, totalling roughly 5 million km, to get to the moon some 383,000 km from the earth, reaching the surface a month and a half after launching.

Other Lunar Missions:

• Intuitive Machines: Their IM-2 mission is set to land on the Moon on March 6, 2025, targeting the Moon’s south pole
• Hakuto-R Mission 2: A Japanese private mission, launched in January 2025, is expected to land in May-June 2025.

6. Exploring Solar Maximum: Why Space Agencies Are Rushing to Study the Sun

Sub: Sci

Sec: Space

Why in News

• NASA is set to launch the Polarimeter to Unify the Corona and Heliosphere (PUNCH) mission on March 6, 2025, from Vandenberg Space Force Base, California.

What is the Solar Cycle?

• The Sun’s magnetic field undergoes periodic changes approximately every 11 years.
• During this cycle, the north and south poles of the Sun switch place, impacting solar activity.
• Solar Maximum: The most active phase of the solar cycle.
  • Increased number of sunspots—dark, cooler areas of strong magnetic fields.
  • Higher frequency of solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs)—powerful bursts of radiation and plasma.
• Solar Minimum: The Sun is least active, with fewer sunspots and reduced solar activity.
  • A new cycle begins after the minimum phase.

Why Scientists Monitor the Solar Cycle?

• Solar activity impacts satellite communications, GPS systems, and electricity grids on Earth.
• Understanding solar cycles helps in predicting space weather and mitigating its adverse effects.

Why Are So Many Solar Missions Being Launched Now?

• Current sunspot observations indicate that the Sun is nearing its solar maximum, though an official confirmation is pending.
• The solar maximum provides a rare opportunity to observe the Sun’s most intense activity.
• Scientists must utilize this short window (2024-2025); otherwise, the next significant solar maximum won’t occur until 2035-2036.

Key Solar Missions in Recent Years:

• Several space agencies have launched missions to study the Sun, including India’s ISRO, Europe’s ESA, and the United States’ NASA.
• Aditya-L1 (India – ISRO):India’s first solar mission to study solar flares and solar winds.
• Proba-3 (European Space Agency – ESA):Designed to study solar winds and solar storms using advanced coronagraph technology.
• PUNCH (NASA – USA):
• Launch Date: March 6, 2025
• PUNCH is a NASA Small Explorer (SMEX) mission designed to study the Sun’s corona and its transition to the solar wind.
• The mission comprises a constellation of four small satellites in Sun-synchronous, low Earth orbit.
• Aims to improve understanding of solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs).

7. The Wallace Line: A Biogeographical Barrier and Its Significance

Sub : Env

Sec: Biodiversity 

Why in News

• The Wallace Line, a crucial biogeographical concept, explains the stark differences in species distribution between Asia and Australia. Recent studies have enhanced our understanding of this division, revealing how geological history, climate, and evolutionary adaptations shaped biodiversity in the Indo-Malayan region.

About Wallace Line:

• The Wallace Line is an invisible demarcation in the ocean that separates the distinct faunal regions of Asia and Australia.
• It runs between Bali and Lombok, extending north between Borneo and Sulawesi before curving south of Mindanao.
• This concept was proposed by English naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace in the 19th century when he noticed a sharp shift in species distribution.
• Wallace observed that while species like tigers and orangutans dominated Asia, kangaroos and cockatoos were characteristic of Australia.
• Sulawesi, an island located near the line, puzzled Wallace due to its unique mix of species from both regions.

About Sulawesi:

• Part of Indonesia, situated between Borneo to the west and the Maluku Islands to the east.
• World’s 11th-largest island.
• Characterized by four peninsulas—the northern Minahasa Peninsula, East Peninsula, South Peninsula, and Southeast Peninsula—separated by the Gulf of Tomini, Tolo Gulf, and Bone Gulf.
• Despite being just 20 km away from Borneo, Sulawesi hosts distinct plants, mammals, and birds.
• The island is home to endemic species such as:
  • Tarsiers (Tarsiidae family):
    • Small primates with large eyes, adapted for nocturnal vision.
    • Found in Southeast Asia, including Sulawesi and the Philippines.
    • Known for their powerful leaping ability.
  • Lowland anoa (Bubalus depressicornis):
    • Smallest wild buffalo species, endemic to Sulawesi, Indonesia.
    • Lives in lowland forests; critically endangered due to habitat loss and hunting.
  • Mountain anoa (Bubalus quarlesi):
    • Slightly smaller than the lowland anoa, inhabiting higher elevations.
    • Solitary and elusive, also critically endangered.
  • Dwarf cuscus (Strigocuscuscelebensis), an Australian marsupial:
    • A marsupial found in Sulawesi, related to Australian possums.
    • Arboreal and nocturnal, feeds on fruits and leaves.
• Wallace struggled to categorize Sulawesi as either Asian or Australiandue to its mixed species composition.
• Geological Explanation:
  • Wallace hypothesized that the present-day islands were once connected to the Asian mainland.
  • As landmasses separated, species became isolated and evolved independently.
  • Modern research has validated this, attributing the biodiversity patterns to continental drift and sea-level fluctuations over millions of years.
• A 2023 study analysing 20,000 species of birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians found:
  • Asian species migrated south using tropical rainforest corridors.
  • Australian species struggled to migrate north due to differences in climate and habitat conditions.
  • The northern migration route for Asian species was older and well-established, while the southern route for Australian species emerged only a few million years ago, making migration difficult.

Weber’s Line:

• An imaginary biogeographical boundary proposed by Max Carl Wilhelm Weber, delineating the separation between the Oriental (Asian) and Australasian (Australian) faunal regions within Wallacea.
• Situated east of Wallace’s Line, it runs through the Malay Archipelago, including islands like Sulawesi, marking a zone where species from both Asian and Australian origins intermingle.

8. Godavari Pushkaram 2027: Aiming for Grand Celebration on Par with Kumbh Mela

Sub : Geo

Sec: India Mapping

Why in News

• The Andhra Pradesh government is planning to conduct the Godavari Pushkaram from July 23 to August 3, 2027, with Chief Minister N. Chandrababu Naidu envisioning it as an event on par with the Maha Kumbh Mela.

About Godavari Pushkaram:

• A Hindu festival dedicated to the worship of the Godavari River.
• Celebrated once every 12 years when Jupiter (Brihaspati) enters Leo (Simha Rashi).
• The event is observed along the banks of Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.

About Godavari River:

• The Godavari River, often referred to as the ‘Dakshin Ganga’ or ‘Ganges of the South’.
• The Godavari originates near Trimbak in the Western Ghats, Nashik district, Maharashtra, at an elevation of approximately 1,067 meters.
• It flows eastward across the Deccan Plateau, traversing states like Maharashtra, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh.
• The river empties into the Bay of Bengal, forming an extensive delta below Rajamahendravaram (formerly Rajahmundry) in Andhra Pradesh.
• Tributaries:
• Major Left-Bank Tributaries:
  • Purna: Originates in the Ajanta Range and joins the Godavari near Purna town in Maharashtra.
  • Pranhita: Formed by the confluence of the Wardha and Wainganga rivers.
  • Indravati: Flows through the central part of the Dandakaranya region.
• Major Right-Bank Tributaries:
  • Manjira: The longest tributary, flowing through Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Telangana.
  • Maner: Flows entirely within Telangana and merges with the Godavari.
• Major Cities Along the River:
  • Nashik, Maharashtra: A significant pilgrimage centre where the riveroriginates.
  • Trimbakeshwar Temple: Located near the river’s origin, it is one of the 12 Jyotirlingas dedicated to Lord Shiva.
  • Bhadrachalam: A town in Telangana associated with Lord Rama.
  • Nizamabad, Telangana: The river flows near this city, supporting agriculture and local economies.
  • Rajamahendravaram (Rajahmundry), Andhra Pradesh: Located on the eastern banks, it is a cultural hub and the point where the river bifurcates into distributaries forming the delta.
• Major Dams and Barrages:
  • Gangapur Dam: Located near Nashik, it is one of the initial structures on the river.
  • Sriram Sagar Dam: Situated in Telangana, it plays a crucial role in irrigation and water supply.
  • Polavaram Project: An under-construction multi-purpose project in Andhra Pradesh aimed at irrigation, water supply, and hydroelectric power generation.
  • Dowleswaram Barrage: Constructed near Rajamahendravaram, it regulates water flow into the delta region.
• Ecological Facts:
  • The river’s extensive delta, known as the Konaseema region, is fertile and supports intensive agriculture, earning it the nickname ‘Rice Granary of South India’.

9. Understanding Carbon Intensity: A Key Metric for Emission Reduction

Sub : Env

Sec :Climate change

Why in News

• China recently announced that it had reduced its carbon intensity by 3.4% in 2024,falling short of its target of 3.9%. Given its commitment to peak carbon emissions before 2030, this raises concerns about its future trajectory in emission reduction.

What is Carbon Intensity?

• Carbon intensity is a crucial metric used to assess the amount of carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions produced per unit of economic or industrial output.
• It helps evaluate how different sectors and economies are progressing toward
• It is commonly expressed as grams of CO₂ per kilowatt-hour (gCO₂/kWh) for the power sector or CO₂ emissions per unit of GDP for national economies.
• A key indicator for countries aiming to meet their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement.
• The global average carbon intensity of electricity generation was 450 gCO₂/kWh in 2023.
• India aims to reduce its GDP-linked carbon intensity by 45% from 2005 levels by 2030.
• The EU has significantly reduced its carbon intensity due to a shift to renewable energy, achieving 275 gCO₂/kWh in 2022.
• Power Generation: Coal-fired power plants have the highest carbon intensity (~900 gCO₂/kWh), while renewables like wind and solar have near zero carbon intensity.
• Transport: Electric vehicles (EVs) reduce carbon intensity compared to fossil-fuel-based transportation.

Different industries and sectors use unique metrics to track carbon intensity:

• Steel Industry: Measured as the amount of CO₂ emitted per tonne of steel produced.
• Medical Insurance Sector: Assessed based on the number of claims processed relative to carbon footprint.
• Human Resource (HR) Services: Evaluated by tracking efficiency improvements in reducing carbon-heavy unproductive work hours.
• National Economy: A country’s carbon intensity is calculated by dividing its GDP growth per capita by the total CO₂ emissions generated.

India’s Efforts to Reduce Carbon Intensity:

• National Hydrogen Mission: Promotes green hydrogen to decarbonize industrial sectors.
• Renewable Energy Expansion: India targets 500 GW of non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030.
• Perform, Achieve, and Trade (PAT) Scheme: A market-based mechanism to enhance energy efficiency in energy-intensive industries.

Significance of Carbon Intensity in Climate Action:

• Provides a standardized way to compare emission levels across different industries and countries.
• Helps governments and businesses track progress in reducing carbon emissions while maintaining economic growth.
• Supports the formulation of policies aimed at decarbonizing high-emission sectors

10. SC Directs States & UTs to Provide Full Records of Forest Lands in 6 Months

Sub: Env

Sec :Env laws/ legislation

Context:

• The Supreme Court has issued a strict directive to States and Union Territories (UTs) regarding the identification and documentation of forest lands.
• The directive follows non-compliance with the December 12, 1996, judgment in T.N. Godavarman Thirumulpad vs Union of India & Others and subsequent court orders.

Legal Background

• T.N. Godavarman Case (1996): SC defined “forest” broadly, covering all statutorily recognized forests.
• Rule 16(1) of Van Adhiniyam Rules, 2023: Includes “forest-like areas” and unclassed/community forests under legal protection.

Challenge to 2023 Forest Act Amendments

• Amendments restrict “forest” to:
  • Notified forests.
  • Areas recorded as forests after October 25, 1980.
• Petitioners argue this excludes 1.97 lakh sq. km from the total 7.13 lakh sq. km forest cover.
• Concerns over ecological imbalance.

Final SC Order

• States & UTs must complete the process in “letter and spirit.”
• Centre to submit final report to SC.

About Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act, 2023

Key Features

• Exemptions for Strategic Projects: Allows forest land use within 100 km of international borders for security projects. Permits up to 10 hectares in Naxal areas and 5 hectares for public utilities.
• Afforestation Promotion: Encourages afforestation and tree plantation to enhance green cover.
• Redefining ‘Forest’: Limits the definition to notified forests and lands recorded as forests after October 25, 1980.
• Permitted Activities: Allows zoos, safaris, and eco-tourism facilities with approved management plans.

Controversies & Legal Challenges

• Environmental Concerns: Critics argue it eases forest land diversion, threatening biodiversity.
• Supreme Court’s Intervention:
  • February 2024 Order: States must follow the 1996 TN Godavarman judgment definition until records are prepared.
  • Reforestation Mandate: Any diversion must be compensated with afforestation elsewhere.

11. Largest Buddha Head Discovered in Odisha’s Ratnagiri

Sub : History

Sec : Art and Culture

Context

• On December 1, 2024, archaeologists unearthed an intact, massive Buddha head in Ratnagiri, Odisha’s Jajpur district.
• The Buddha head, lying face down, took nearly two months to be completely excavated.
• It measures 1.4 metres tall, making it the largest ever discovered in Odisha.

Findings at the Site

Parts of a Large Buddha Sculpture

• Along with the Buddha head, archaeologists found:
• Palms and fingers, likely belonging to a large meditating Buddha sculpture.

Other Sculptures and Relics

• Three sculpted heads of varying sizes.
• A monolithic elephant sculpture.
• Hundreds of votive stupas, ranging from simple to highly ornamented.
• Brick and stone masonry structures.

Vajrayana Buddhist Influence

• Stone tablets inscribed in Sanskrit using the Kutila script (Siddhamatrika) were discovered.
• Smaller stone-carved votive stupas were found arranged in a line, reflecting the Vajrayana practice of making offerings upon fulfilling wishes.
• Niches in votive stupas likely housed male and female divinities associated with Buddhism.
• The site attracted a large number of visitors, as suggested by the abundance of votives.

 Ceramic and Architectural Discoveries

• Ceramic assemblage dominated by fine grey ware in various shapes and sizes.

Significance of the Discovery

• The resumption of excavation after six decades has provided new insights into the Buddhist influence in the region.
• The excavation is expected to continue until March 2025, after which the summer heat will halt the process.
• Further analysis will determine if this is the largest Buddha head ever found in India.