Daily Prelims Notes 7 June 2024

Daily Prelims Notes

7 June 2024

1. Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS)

Sub : Science and tech

Sec: Health

Tag: Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS)

Context:

• The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that approximately 33,000 new incidences of brain cancer happen each year in India alone, while Global Cancer Observatory 2020 estimates brain cancer as the 19th most common type of cancer. 

Key Highlights:

• A  DNA mutation can change how our cells grow and function, sometimes leading to cancer.
• Research suggests that there are close to 3,000 such cancer-causing genes. 
• With each gene containing thousands of DNA codes, and each code potentially holding vital information about cancer development, the sheer volume of data analysis for a human can become quite overwhelming.
• Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) which is a cutting-edge technology that is potentially transforming our ability to decipher the genetic code with speed and precision.
• The Human Genome Project officially began in 1990 and was completed in 2003, taking about 13 years to finish, at a cost of about $3 billion.

About Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS):

• Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) is a modern DNA sequencing technology that has revolutionized genomic research by allowing the sequencing of DNA and RNA much more quickly and cheaply than the previously used Sanger sequencing.
• The concept of a liquid biopsy is  a revolutionary technique that offers a less invasive alternative to surgery.

Advantages of NGS:

• Speed: Enables rapid sequencing of large amounts of DNA/RNA.
• Cost-Effective: Lower cost per base compared to traditional sequencing methods.
• Comprehensive: Can detect a wide range of genetic variations, including SNPs, insertions, deletions, and structural variations.
• Scalability: Can be scaled to fit a variety of experimental needs, from small targeted studies to large genome-wide analyses.

About Human Genome Project:

• The Human Genome Project (HGP) was an international scientific research project with the goal of determining the base pairs that make up human DNA, and of identifying, mapping and sequencing all of the genes of the human genome from both a physical and a functional standpoint.
• It started in 1990 and was completed in 2003.
• It remains the world’s largest collaborative biological project.

About DNA:

• Deoxyribonucleic acid is a polymer composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to form a double helix.
• The polymer carries genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of all known organisms and many viruses. 
• DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are nucleic acids. 
• Alongside proteins, lipids and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), nucleic acids are one of the four major types of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life.
• The two DNA strands are known as polynucleotides as they are composed of simpler monomeric units called nucleotides.
• Each nucleotide is composed of one of four nitrogen-containing nucleobases (cytosine [C], guanine [G], adenine [A] or thymine [T]), a sugar called deoxyribose, and a phosphate group. 

2. Man in Mexico dies with first human case of H5N2 bird flu

Subject: Science and tech

Sec: Health

Context:

• A 59-year-old man in Mexico has died with a type of bird flu – H5N2 – never recorded in people before now.

What is bird flu?

• Avian influenza (AI) is a highly contagious viral disease affecting several species of food-producing birds (chickens, turkeys, quails, guinea fowl, etc.), as well as pet birds and wild birds.
• Occasionally mammals, including humans, may contract avian influenza.
• Influenza A viruses are classified into subtypes based on two surface proteins, Hemagglutinin (HA) and Neuraminidase (NA). For example, a virus that has an HA 7 protein and NA 9 protein is designated as subtype H7N9.
• Avian influenza virus subtypes include A(H5N1), A(H7N9), and A(H9N2).
• HPAI A(H5N1) virus occurs mainly in birds and is highly contagious among them.
• HPAI Asian H5N1 is especially deadly for poultry.

Various strains of Bird Flu:

• H5N2 belongs to a family of bird flu viruses called H5, which primarily infects wild birds.
• There are a total of nine known subtypes of H5 viruses, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 
• H5N1, which was detected in dairy cows in the U.S. in March, also belongs to this family.
• There are many types or strains of avian or bird flu.
• As well as birds, some wild mammals – such as seals, otters, wild dogs and foxes – can catch them too.
• One type of bird flu, called H5N1, has been spreading for weeks among dairy cow herds in the US, with a small number of cases reported among humans.

3. Are scientists finally beating antimicrobial resistance?

Sub: Science and tech

Sec: Health

Context:

• Recently, researchers used AI to predict 800,000 potential antibiotic agents.

More on news:

• Antimicrobial resistant infections kill millions every year.
• They have the potential to take us back to the dark ages, when common infections like urinary tract infections (UTIs) or pneumonia were lethal and untreatable.

What is Antimicrobial Resistance?

• Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the top global public health and development threats.
• An antimicrobial is an agent that kills microorganisms (microbicide) or stops their growth (bacteriostatic agent).
• Antimicrobial medicines can be grouped according to the microorganisms they act primarily against.
• For example, antibiotics are used against bacteria, and antifungals are used against fungi. 
• They can also be classified according to their function. 
• The use of antimicrobial medicines to treat infection is known as antimicrobial chemotherapy, while the use of antimicrobial medicines to prevent infection is known as antimicrobial prophylaxis.
• Antimicrobials – including antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals, and antiparasitics – are medicines used to prevent and treat infectious diseases in humans, animals and plants. 
• Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites no longer respond to antimicrobial medicines.

Using AI to discover new antibiotics:

• The study used machine learning to search for potential antibiotic agents in a huge database of microbes which live in environments such as soil, the ocean, and human and animal guts.

Peptide antibiotics effective against bacterial infections:

• To find out which of these peptides could be useful as antibiotics, the researchers synthesized 100 peptides and tested them against 11 disease-causing bacterial strains in laboratory dishes.
• They found that 79 peptides disrupted bacterial membranes and 63 peptides specifically targeted antibiotic-resistant bacteria, such as Escherichia coli (E.coli) and Staphylococcus aureus.
• The researchers also tested the compounds in mice with infected skin abscesses, but only three of the peptides showed antimicrobial effects in vivo (in a living organism).

4. Major cause of inflammatory bowel disease discovered

Sub : Science and tech

Sec: Health

Tags: inflammatory bowel disease, Autoimmune Disorders

Context:

• Researchers at the Francis Crick Institute, working with UCL and Imperial College London, have discovered a new biological pathway that is a principal driver of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and related conditions, and which can be targeted using existing drugs.

Key Highlights:

• About 5% of the world’s population, and one in ten people in the UK1, are currently affected by an autoimmune disease, such as IBD, the umbrella term for Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis. 
• These diseases are also becoming more common, with over half a million people living with IBD in the UK as of 2022, nearly double the 300,000 previously estimated2.
• They found that this gene desert contains an ‘enhancer’, a section of DNA that is like a volume dial for nearby genes, able to crank up the amount of proteins they make.
• The team discovered that this particular enhancer was only active in macrophages, a type of immune cell known to be important in IBD, and boosted a gene called ETS2, with higher levels correlating with a higher risk of disease.
• The scientists showed that ETS2 was essential for almost all inflammatory functions in macrophages, including several that directly contribute to tissue damage in IBD.

ETS2 as a treatment target:

• They found that MEK inhibitors, drugs already prescribed for other non-inflammatory conditions, were predicted to switch off the inflammatory effects of ETS2.
• As MEK inhibitors can have side effects in other organs, the researchers are now working with LifeArc to find ways to deliver MEK inhibitors directly to macrophages.

What is Crohn’s disease?

• Crohn’s disease is a type of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) that may affect any segment of the gastrointestinal tract.
• Symptoms often include abdominal pain, diarrhea, fever, abdominal distension, and weight loss.
• Complications outside of the gastrointestinal tract may include anemia, skin rashes, arthritis, inflammation of the eye, and fatigue.
• The skin rashes may be due to infections as well as pyoderma gangrenosum or erythema nodosum.
• Bowel obstruction may occur as a complication of chronic inflammation, and those with the disease are at greater risk of colon cancer and small bowel cancer.

What are Autoimmune Disorders?

• An autoimmune disease is a condition that results from an anomalous response of the adaptive immune system, wherein it mistakenly targets and attacks healthy, functioning parts of the body as if they were foreign organisms.
• It is estimated that there are more than 80 recognized autoimmune diseases, with recent scientific evidence suggesting the existence of potentially more than 100 distinct conditions.
• Autoimmune diseases are a separate class from autoinflammatory diseases. 
• Both are characterized by an immune system malfunction which may cause similar symptoms, such as rash, swelling, or fatigue, but the cardinal cause or mechanism of the diseases are different. 
• A key difference is a malfunction of the innate immune system in autoinflammatory diseases, whereas in autoimmune diseases there is a malfunction of the adaptive immune system.
• Some of the most common diseases that are generally categorized as autoimmune include celiac disease, type 1 diabetes, Graves’ disease, inflammatory bowel diseases (such as Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis), multiple sclerosis, alopecia areata,Addison’s disease, pernicious anemia, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, and systemic lupus erythematosus. 
• Diagnosing autoimmune diseases can be challenging due to their diverse presentations and the transient nature of many symptoms.

5. ECB Cuts Interest Rates Amid Inflation Concerns

Sub: Economy

Sec: Capital Market

The European Central Bank (ECB) has initiated its first interest rate cut since 2019, reflecting progress in tackling inflation while acknowledging that the fight against inflation is far from over.

Key Details:

• Interest Rate Cut: The ECB reduced its deposit rate to 3.75% from a record high of 4.0%.
• Inflation Forecast: New forecasts suggest inflation will average 2.2% in 2025, up from a previous estimate of 2%, indicating it will stay above the ECB’s 2% target for a significant part of next year.
• Current Inflation Status: Inflation in the eurozone, comprising 20 nations, has decreased to 2.6% from over 10% in late 2022. This drop is attributed mainly to lower fuel costs and the easing of post-pandemic supply chain issues.
• Persistent Challenges: Despite progress, recent data indicates that inflation may remain stubbornly high, similar to trends observed in the United States.
• Domestic Price Pressures: Domestic price pressures remain strong due to elevated wage growth, suggesting inflation will likely stay above target well into the next year.

Market Response and Analyst Insight:

• Uncertainty on Further Easing: The ECB did not indicate whether this rate cut would be followed by further easing in July.
• Economic Outlook: Diego Iscaro, head of European economics at S&P Global Market Intelligence, stated that it is unlikely to see back-to-back cuts, reflecting the cautious approach of the ECB given the current economic conditions.

Conclusion:

The ECB’s decision to cut interest rates signals an attempt to manage inflation while navigating a complex economic landscape. The persistence of inflationary pressures, despite recent progress, underscores the challenges the ECB faces in achieving its inflation targets. The cautious tone and lack of commitment to future rate cuts indicate that the central bank is closely monitoring economic developments before making further policy adjustments.

European Central Bank (ECB)

The European Central Bank (ECB) is the central bank for the eurozone, consisting of the 20 European Union (EU) member countries that have adopted the euro as their common currency.

Key Functions of the ECB:

• Monetary Policy:
  • Price Stability: Aim to keep inflation rates below, but close to, 2% over the medium term.
  • Interest Rates: Sets key interest rates to influence economic activity and inflation.
  • Open Market Operations: Conducts open market operations to manage liquidity and guide interest rates.
• Foreign Exchange Operations:
  • Manages the euro area’s foreign reserves.
  • Conducts foreign exchange operations to stabilize the euro’s exchange rate when necessary.
• Financial Stability and Supervision:
  • Banking Supervision: Oversees significant eurozone banks through the Single Supervisory Mechanism (SSM).
  • Macroprudential Policies: Implements policies to maintain financial system stability and prevent systemic risks.
• Issuing Currency:
  • Responsible for issuing euro banknotes and overseeing the production of euro coins, in collaboration with national central banks.
• Economic Research and Statistics:
  • Conducts economic research and provides statistical information to support policy decisions and ensure transparency.

6. SEBI Expands Promoter Definition for IPO-Bound Companies

Sub: Economy

Sec: Capital Market

Introduction: The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) has expanded the definition of promoters for companies preparing for an initial public offering (IPO). This move aims to enhance transparency and accountability in the listing process.

Current SEBI Regulations:

• Definition of Promoter: A promoter controls the affairs of the company, can appoint the majority of directors, or is named as such in the offer document.
• Previous Threshold: Founders holding 25% were considered promoters due to their negative control and power to block special resolutions.

New Guidelines:

• Lower Threshold: Founders holding 10% or more must classify themselves as promoters.
• Collective Holding: Founders collectively holding 10% will be considered promoters if they are key managerial personnel (KMP) or directors.
• Immediate Relatives: Immediate relatives of promoters will also be deemed promoters if they are on the company board, are KMPs, or hold 10% or more in the company, directly or indirectly.

Impact of New Guidelines:

• Increased Coverage: Immediate relatives holding significant shares, even if not directly involved in management, will now be classified as promoters.
• Example Scenario: A non-executive director who is a brother or father of a promoter, with no shares, will be considered a promoter. This extends to in-laws if connected through shareholding relatives.

Declassification Challenges:

• LODR Regulations: Regulation 31A of the LODR Regulations makes it difficult for individuals classified as part of the promoter group to be declassified as public shareholders.
• Practical Implications: This is particularly challenging for married daughters or other relatives who may not have an active role in the company.

Case Study: Flair Writing Industries:

• Initial Promoters: Khubilal Jugraj Rathod and Vimalchand Jugraj Rathod.
• Subsequent Inclusions: Relatives Rajesh Rathod, Mohit Rathod, and Sumit Rathod, each holding 10%, were included as promoters, along with several in-laws.

Subjective Definition Issues:

• Court Rulings: The subjective definition of promoters has been debated in courts.
• Need for Objectivity: Moving towards a more objective test for determining control is considered beneficial.

Definition of Immediate Relatives:

• Inclusions: Spouse, parents, brothers, sisters, or children of the person or their spouse.

Conclusion: SEBI’s expanded promoter definition aims to cover a broader range of individuals with significant influence or shareholding in IPO-bound companies. While this promotes greater transparency, it also presents challenges in declassification and may affect individuals not actively involved in company management. The new guidelines necessitate careful consideration by companies and their advisors to ensure compliance and avoid unintended consequences.

SEBI – Listing Obligations and Disclosure Requirements (LODR) Regulations in 2015

The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) introduced the Listing Obligations and Disclosure Requirements (LODR) Regulations in 2015 to enhance transparency, accountability, and investor protection in the securities market. These regulations provide a comprehensive framework for the listing of securities on stock exchanges and prescribe the obligations and disclosure requirements for listed entities.

Key Features of LODR Regulations 2015:

• Applicability:
  • The LODR Regulations apply to all entities listed on recognized stock exchanges in India, including equity shares, debentures, and other securities.
• Disclosure Requirements:
  • Listed entities must disclose material events and information promptly to ensure that all stakeholders have timely access to relevant information.
  • Disclosures include financial results, board meetings, corporate actions (like dividends, mergers, and acquisitions), and other material developments.
• Corporate Governance:
  • The regulations emphasize robust corporate governance practices, including the composition of the board of directors, the roles of independent directors, and the functioning of board committees.
  • It mandates the establishment of committees such as the Audit Committee, Nomination and Remuneration Committee, Stakeholders Relationship Committee, and Risk Management Committee.
• Financial Reporting:
  • Listed entities are required to submit quarterly and annual financial statements within specified timelines.
  • The regulations mandate the use of Indian Accounting Standards (Ind AS) for financial reporting.
• Related Party Transactions:
  • The regulations require listed entities to formulate a policy on materiality of related party transactions and on dealing with related party transactions.
  • All related party transactions must be disclosed to the stock exchanges and included in the annual report.
• Shareholding Patterns:
  • Listed entities must disclose their shareholding patterns, indicating the distribution of shareholding among promoters, public shareholders, institutional investors, and other categories.
  • Changes in shareholding patterns must be reported to the stock exchanges periodically.
• Subsidiaries:
  • Significant transactions and arrangements involving subsidiaries must be disclosed, and the performance of subsidiaries must be reported in the consolidated financial statements.
• Penalties and Enforcement:
  • Non-compliance with LODR regulations attracts penalties and enforcement actions by SEBI, which may include fines, suspension of trading, or delisting of securities.

7. Delhi water crisis: Supreme Court orders Himachal Pradesh to release 137 cusecs of water to quench Delhi’s thirst

Sub: Geography

Sec: Geomorphology

Context:

• The Supreme Court ordered the release of 137 cusecs of surplus water from upstream Himachal Pradesh through the Hathnikund barrage in Haryana into the Wazirabad barrage to quench Delhi’s drinking water crisis.

Delhi’s Water Sources:

• Delhi sources most of its water from the Yamuna, Ravi-Beas, and Ganga rivers. 
  • From the Ganga via the Upper Ganga Canal in UP, Delhi receives 470 cusecs of water.
  • Two channels from Haryana, the Carrier Lined Channel (CLC) and the Delhi Sub Branch (DSB), supply water from the Yamuna and Ravi-Beas rivers, providing a total of roughly 565 MGD.
• The Delhi Jal Board (DJB) also draws water directly from the Yamuna and supplements its supply with around 135 MGD from groundwater.

Causes of the Water Shortage:

• The water treatment plant (WTP) in Wazirabad operated below capacity from May 12 to 14 and again from May 18 to June 1.
• This coincided with record-high temperatures and a surge in water demand.
• The Wazirabad WTP, with a capacity of 131 MGD, is the third largest of DJB’s nine WTPs and primarily depends on water from the CLC and DSB.
• Issues arose from the plant’s dependency on the Yamuna at the Wazirabad reservoir.

Water Allocation to Delhi:

• A 1994 water-sharing agreement on the ‘surface flow’ of the Yamuna among Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh and Delhi specifies that Delhi is to receive 0.076 billion cubic metres of water from March to June, with an annual allocation of 0.724 BCM (roughly 435 MGD).
• This allocation is regulated by the Upper Yamuna River Board, and the agreement is due for revision in 2025.
• In 1996, the Supreme Court directed that Delhi should continue to receive adequate water from Haryana to fill the Wazirabad and Hyderpur reservoirs to capacity.

Upper Yamuna River Board:

• A subordinate office under the Department of Water Resources, RD & GR, Ministry of Jal Shakti, Government of India.
• A memorandum of Understanding (MoU) was signed by the Chief Ministers of Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Utter Pradesh, Rajasthan and the National Capital Territory of Delhi on 12th May 1994 regarding the allocation of utilizable surface flow of River Yamuna up to Okhla Barrage among the co-basin States.
• The MoU provides for the creation of a board called the Upper Yamuna River Board (UYRB).

Dams and Barrages on Yamuna river:

• Asan Barrage- On Uttarakhand- Himachal Pradesh Border
• Dakpathar Barrage- Uttarakhand
• Ichari Dam- Uttarakhand
• Lakhwar Dam- Uttarakhand
• Gandhi Sagar Dam- (Chambal River) Madhya Pradesh
• Gokul barrage- Mathura district, Uttar Pradesh
• Hathni Kund Barrage- Haryana
• ITO barrage- Delhi
• Masani barrage- (Sahibi river) Haryana
• Okhla barrage and New Okhla Barrage- Delhi
• Pathrala barrage- Haryana
• Rana Pratap Sagar Dam- (Chambal river) Rajasthan
• Tajewala Barrage- (Now decommissioned) Haryana
• Wazirabad barrage- Delhi

Source: IE

8. Bihar: Human-made wetlands Nagi & Nakti recognised under Ramsar Convention

Sub: Environment

Sec: Protected Area

Context:

• Bihar’s Nagi and Nakti Bird Sanctuaries have been designated as wetlands of international importance under the Ramsar Convention.
• This recognition raises the total number of Ramsar sites in India to 82.
• Bihar’s first Ramsar site, Kanwar Lake in Begusarai district, was designated in 2020.

About Nagi and Nakti wetlands:

• The Nagi and Nakti Bird Sanctuaries are human-made wetlands located in Jamui district, Bihar.
• These wetlands provide habitats for a wide variety of flora and fauna, especially migratory birds.
• Nagi Bird Sanctuary spans 791 hectares, while Nakti covers 333 hectares.
• Ecological Importance:
  • The wetlands were developed primarily for irrigation via the Nakti Dam, which also created habitats for over 150 species of birds, mammals, fish, aquatic plants, and reptiles.
  • Notable species include the endangered Indian elephant and the vulnerable native catfish Wallago Attu.
  • The surrounding area comprises largely dry deciduous forest and hills.
• Bird Habitat and Count:
  • Designated as bird sanctuaries in 1984, these wetlands support over 20,000 birds during winter, including significant populations of the red-crested pochard.
  • The Asiatic Waterbird Census 2023 reported the Nakti bird sanctuary as having the highest bird count with 7,844 birds, followed by the Nagi bird sanctuary with 6,938 birds.

Ramsar Convention on Wetlands

• It is an international treaty for “the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands”.
• It is also known as the Convention on Wetlands.
• It is named after the city of Ramsar in Iran.
• The Convention was signed on 2nd of February 1971.
• The 2nd of February each year is World Wetlands Day.
• The number of parties to the convention (COP) is 171.
• At the centre of the Ramsar philosophy is the “wise use” of wetlands.
• Wise use: maintenance of ecological character within the context of sustainable development.
• Australia was the first country to accede to the convention.
• First Ramsar site: Cobourg Peninsula, Australia.
• The countries with the most Sites are the United Kingdom with 175 and Mexico with 142.
• Bolivia has the largest area under Ramsar protection.

Criteria for Identification of Wetlands under Ramsar Convention:

If a wetland:

• contains a representative, rare, or unique example of a natural or near-natural wetland type.
• supports vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species; or threatened ecological communities.
• supports populations of plant and/or animal species important for maintaining the biological diversity of a particular biogeographic region.
• supports plant and/or animal species at a critical stage in their life cycles or provides refuge during adverse conditions.
• regularly supports 20,000 or more water birds.
• regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one species or subspecies of water birds.
• supports a significant proportion of indigenous fish subspecies.
• is an important source of food for fishes, spawning ground, nursery and/or migration path.
• is an important source of food and water resource, increased possibilities for recreation and eco-tourism, etc.

The Montreux Record:

• The Montreux Record is a register of wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of International Importance where changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring, or are likely to occur as a result of technological developments, pollution or other human interference.
• It is maintained as part of the Ramsar List.
• From India, Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) and Loktak Lake (Manipur) are under Montreux record.

Ramsar sites:

Source: DTE