Daily Prelims Notes 15 January 2023

January 15, 2023
Posted by: OptimizeIAS Team
Category: DPN

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Daily Prelims Notes

15 January 2023

Table Of Contents

1. Reconstructing past deep-water circulations of Indian Ocean

Subject: Geography

Section: Oceanography

Why in news:

Studies have indicated that tectonically driven changes in the ocean gateways such as the closure of the Central American Seaway, a body of water that once separated North America from South America, since the late Miocene period, had a dramatic impact on the global overturning circulation.

What is global overturning circulation:

Global overturning circulation (GOC) — the equatorward transport of cold, deep waters and the poleward transport of warm, near-surface waters — controls ocean heat distribution and atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, thus playing a critical role in global climate.

Panama closure hypothesis:

The “Panama Hypothesis” states that the gradual closure of the Panama Seaway, between 13 million years ago (13 Ma) and 2.6 Ma, led to decreased mixing of Atlantic and Pacific water Masses, the formation of North Atlantic Deep water and strengthening of the Atlantic thermohaline circulation, increased temperatures and evaporation in the North Atlantic, increased precipitation in Northern Hemisphere (NH) high latitudes, culminating in the intensification of Northern Hemisphere Glaciation (NHG) during the Pliocene.

What were previous assumptions?

It is thought that tectonic changes might have led to the formation of two separate water bodies — northern component water in the North Atlantic and Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) in the Southern Ocean.
Consequently, it is also hypothesised that there would have been large-scale changes in the Deep Water Circulation (DWC) in the oceans across the world, thus impacting global climate through ocean-atmosphere carbon dioxide and heat exchanges.

Lack of data and evidence in support of the hypothesis:

Data for deep water circulations were only available for the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Those data might not reflect the global impact and change in deep water circulations.

Role of the Indian ocean in deep water circulation:

The Indian Ocean does not have any major deep-water formations of its own.
It acts only as a host for NCW and AABW.
Further, the northern parts of the Indian Ocean are located at one of the terminal ends of the GOC, far away from the deep-water formation regions and oceanic seaways.
These specific features could make the northern Indian Ocean an ideal basin to do this.

Deep water circulation studies in the Indian Ocean:

Few studies have been carried out in the Indian Ocean to reconstruct past deep water circulations based on iron-manganese crust records and the authigenic neodymium isotope composition of sediment cores.
There were some hurdles. For example:
- Data are available only for the Bay of Bengal region
- Himalayan rivers bring a substantial amount of neodymium particulates.

New Study:

A new study by a team of researchers from the Goa-based National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research and the School of Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences in Goa University has now sorted out the issue.
- The scientists have generated an authigenic neodymium isotope record from the Arabian Sea and reconstructed the DWC record of the Indian Ocean for the period from 11.3 million years ago (Miocene era) to 1.98 million years ago (Pleistocene era).
The record shows a clear shift from the Pacific water-dominated deep circulation system about nine million years ago, to the onset of a modern-like deep water circulation system in the Indian Ocean comprising of Antarctic bottom water and northern component water during the Miocene-Pliocene transition (about six million years ago).
The finding suggests a widespread impact of the late Miocene Central American Seaway closure on the evolution of ocean deep water circulation and validates the so-called Panama Closure Hypothesis.

Significance of the study:

The study is highly significant since it provides unequivocal evidence in support of the theory that the closing of the gap between North and South America had led to the evolution of the modern form of GOC.

2. Tonga eruption similar to Mount St. Helens eruption

Subject: Geography

Section: Geomorphology

Context: The forces generated by the January 2022 Tonga eruption created globally observable atmosphere waves. The atmospheric wave pattern close to the eruption was quite complicated, but thousands of miles away the disturbances were led by an isolated wave front traveling horizontally at more than 650 miles per hour as it spread outward. The air pressure perturbations associated with the initial wave front were seen clearly on thousands of barometer records throughout the world.

Concept –

Tonga is a Polynesian country and also an archipelago consisting of 169 islands, of which 36 are inhabited.
In 2010, Tonga took a decisive step away from its traditional absolute monarchy and towards becoming a fully functioning constitutional monarchy, after legislative reforms paved the way for its first partial representative elections.
Geologically the Tongan islands are of two types: most have a limestone base formed from uplifted coral formations; others consist of limestone overlaying a volcanic base.

Why are the volcano’s eruptions so highly explosive, given that sea water should cool the magma down?

If magma rises into sea water slowly, even at temperatures of about 1200 degrees Celsius, a thin film of steam forms between the magma and water. This provides a layer of insulation to allow the outer surface of the magma to cool.
But this process doesn’t work when magma is blasted out of the ground full of volcanic gas. When magma enters the water rapidly, any steam layers are quickly disrupted, bringing hot magma in direct contact with cold water.
Volcano researchers call this ‘fuel-coolant interaction’ and it is akin to weapons-grade chemical explosions. Extremely violent blasts tear the magma apart. A chain reaction begins, with new magma fragments exposing fresh hot interior surfaces to water, and the explosions repeat, ultimately jetting out volcanic particles and causing blasts with supersonic speeds.

3. What does the centre wants in Bhopal gas case?

Subject: Geography

Section: Geomorphology

Context:

The Union of India calls the Bhopal gas leak tragedy the world’s largest industrial disaster.

About the tragedy:

On the intervening night of December 2-3, 1984, methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas escaped from the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, leading to hundreds of deaths.

Why in news now?

A Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court led by Justice S. K. Kaul has reserved its judgment on a curative petition filed by the Centre in November 2010 to enhance the $470 million (about ₹725 crore at the then-exchange rate) compensation fixed in a 1989 settlement reached with Union Carbide Corporation (UCC), now a wholly owned subsidiary of Dow Chemicals, with the imprimatur of the apex court.
The government has sought an additional amount of ₹675.96 crores in compensation from the pesticide company.
The UCC has refused to pay a “farthing more”. The court made it clear that it would not “try” the curative petition like an ordinary suit and reopen the settlement.

What is the basis for the plea for more compensation?

Earlier the basis of compensation was the number of death due to the tragedy, which was 3000.
Now, in the curative petition, the number of deaths have been shown to be 5295.
Further, the number of cases of cancer and renal failure was 16,739 and 6,711, respectively.
The estimated numbers for temporary disability and minor injury cases were 20,000 and 50,000, respectively.

Curative petition:

The curative plea is a remedy evolved by the Supreme Court in the 2002 judgment in the Ashok Hurra versus Rupa Hurra case.
It is the rarest-of-rare remedies when “the duty to do justice shall have to prevail over the policy of certainty of a judgment and declining justice would be oppressive to judicial conscience and perpetuate an irremediable injustice”.
A party can take only two limited grounds in a curative petition

one, that he or she was not given an opportunity to be heard, and
two, that the judges were biased.

A curative petition, which follows the dismissal of the review petition, is the last legal avenue open in the Supreme Court.
The government had not filed a review petition, but directly came for curative relief in 2010.

4. Ageing world: Elderly population expected to double over the next 3 decades; are our policies mature enough to address it?

Subject: Geography

Section: Geomorphology

Context:

The number of persons aged 65 years or older worldwide is expected to double over the next three decades, according to a new report by the United Nations (UN).
The elderly population will reach 1.6 billion in 2050, accounting for more than 16 per cent of the global population.

About the Report:

Titled: World Social Report 2023: Leaving no one behind in an ageing world
Released by: UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs

Report highlights:

North Africa, West Asia and sub-Saharan Africa are expected to experience the fastest growth in the number of older people over the next three decades, while Europe and North America combined now have the highest share of older persons.
In countries with available data, the number of years lived in good health has climbed, accounting for most of the increase in years lived overall.
The report highlighted two sets of actions to make societies accommodative of people of all ages.

The first set can be employed throughout people’s lifetimes to promote labour market participation, increase productivity, uphold good health and prevent poverty.
The second set consists of policies to reduce inequality and promote economic security at older ages in a fiscally sustainable manner, considering pensions and health care.

Inequality in ageing:

In almost all societies, women live longer than men on average and the rich longer than the poor.
Reasons include:
- Poor nutrition
- Exposure to environmental and occupational hazards
- Limited income and education
Inequalities between men and women persist into old age.
- Economically, women’s lower levels of formal labour market participation, shorter working lives and lower wages during working years lead to more economic insecurity in later life.
In more developed regions, public transfer systems, including pensions and health care, provide over two-thirds of the consumption by older persons.
In less developed regions, older persons tend to work longer and rely more on accumulated assets or family assistance.

From Active ageing to Healthy ageing by World Health Organisation:

The World Health Organization and the UN have designated 2021-2030 as the Decade of Healthy Aging, building on the Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing that aligns with the Sustainable Development Goals.
The demand for long-term care is soaring in many countries as the population of older persons grows larger, especially at ages 80 and above.
Public spending in most countries has not been sufficient to cover the growing demand for long-term care.

Indian scenario:

According to the National Commission on Population, the share of the elderly in India’s population, close to 9% in 2011, is growing fast and may reach 18% by 2036.
If India is to ensure a decent quality of life for the elderly in the near future, planning and providing for it must begin today.
Life expectancy in India has more than doubled since Independence from around 32 years in the late 1940s to 70 years or so today.
Many countries have done even better, but this is still a historical achievement.

National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP):

Under the National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP) scheme, India has important schemes of non-contributory pensions for the elderly, widowed women and disabled persons.
It is administered by the Ministry of Rural Development.

What are the Other Related Schemes?

Pradhan Mantri Vaya Vandana Yojana (PMVVY):

It is a Pension Scheme announced by the Government of India exclusively for senior citizens aged 60 years and above.
The scheme is now extended up to 2023 for a further period of three years beyond 2020.

Integrated Program for Older Persons (IPOP):

The main goal of this policy is to improve the quality of life of senior citizens.
This is done by providing them with various basic amenities such as food, shelter, medical care, and even entertainment opportunities.

Rashtriya Vayoshree Yojana:

It is a central sector scheme funded by the Senior Citizens’ Welfare Fund. The fund was notified in the year 2016.
All unclaimed amounts from small savings accounts, PPF and EPF are transferred to this fund.
It aims to provide aids and assistive living devices to senior citizens belonging tothe Below Poverty Line (BPL) category who suffer from age-related disabilities such as low vision, hearing impairment, loss of teeth and locomotor disabilities.

SAMPANN Project:

It was launched in 2018. It is a seamless online pension processing and payment system for Department of Telecommunications pensioners.
It provides direct credit of pension into the bank accounts of pensioners.

SACRED Portal for Elderly:

The portal was developed by the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment.
Citizens above 60 years of age can register on the portal and find jobs and work opportunities.

Elder Line: Toll-Free Number for Elderly:

It provides information, guidance, and emotional support – particularly on pension, medical and legal issues – besides immediate assistance in cases of abuse.
It is devised to provide all senior citizens, or their well-wishers, with ONE platform across the country to connect and share their concerns and get information and guidance on problems that they face on a day-to-day basis.

SAGE (Seniorcare Ageing Growth Engine) Initiative:

It is a “one-stop access” to elderly care products and services by credible start-ups.
It has been launched with a view to help such persons who are interested in entrepreneurship in the field of providing services for elderly care.

5. Survey at Alappuzha wetlands hints at a decline in number of visiting waterbirds

Subject: Environment

Section: Environment/Species

Context:

A recent detailed assessment of the survey conducted in the northern parts of Alappuzha, as part of the Asian Waterbird Census 2023 revealed that a shift in migration patterns of waterbirds appears to be taking place.

Highlight:

In the recent survey, it is revealed that Duck species sighted in previous surveys were missing this time.
The most shocking aspect was that duck species like Northern Shoveler, Common teal and Eurasian wigeon, sighted in the previous surveys, were totally missing this time around.

Key facts about the main birds which were sighted during the census:

Oriental darter

It is mainly found in freshwater rivers and ponds of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia.
Also called
Conservation status
IUCN: Near Threat

Cattle egret

The cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis) is a cosmopolitan species of heron (family Ardeidae) found in the tropics, subtropics, and warm-temperate zones.
It was originally native to parts of southern Spain and Portugal, tropical and subtropical Africa, and humid tropical and subtropical Asia.
Conservation status
IUCN: Least Concern

Spot-billed Pelican

It breeds in southern Asia from southern Iran across India east to Indonesia.
Conservation status
IUCN: Near Threatened
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule IV

6. Alzheimer’s cure

Subject :Science and Technology

Section: Health/Disease

Context:

Central University of Rajasthan (CUoR) has evolved an ingenious concept of food sustainability for combating age-related neurodegenerative ailments such as Alzheimer’s.

What is the concept evolved by the researchers?

The researchers found that the intake of dairy proteins can reduce the occurrence of Alzheimer’s and also provide other health benefits.

How do dairy products help in combating Alzheimer’s?

When a protein called amyloid builds up in organs with food intake, the risk factor for Alzheimer’s and other neurodegenerative diseases increases.
To capture these amyloids, it is necessary to find a suitable molecule that could effectively capture the toxic protein aggregates and degrade them.
The researchers have found dairy proteins to be having structural superiority to trap harmful molecules and destroy them.

About Alzheimer’s Disease:

Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive neurologic disorder that causes the brain to shrink (atrophy) and brain cells to die.
The disease is the most common cause of dementia — a continuous decline in thinking, behavioural and social skills that affect a person’s ability to function independently.
Caused by: Alzheimer’s disease is thought to be caused by the abnormal build-up of proteins in and around brain cells.
- One of the proteins involved is called amyloid, deposits of which form plaques around brain cells.
- The other protein is called tau, deposits of which form tangles within brain cells.
Vulnerability: Alzheimer disease most commonly affects older adults, but it can also affect people in their 30s or 40s.

7. Doctor didi’s creating social capital in Jharkhand

Subject : Governance

Concept:

Doctor didis are part of a team (pashu sakhi) of around 1,000 women in all 24 districts of Jharkhand who have been recruited since October 2013 for the last mile of livestock management.
These women, formally called community animal caretakers and informally known as doctor didi, go door to door when called.
They advise farmers on health checks of their livestock, vaccinations, deworming, hygiene, breeding, feeding and management of animal waste.
The project was established under the National Rural Livelihood Mission, with the goal of building a line of community resources.
In 2017-2018, the Jharkhand Opportunities for Harnessing Rural Growth (JOHAR) took charge of the project and the World Bank started financing World Bank data says up to 57,000 farmers are now benefiting.

The Pashu Sakhi Model

There are no strict criteria for Pashu Sakhi except that the women should live in the village they serve.
The pashu sakhis receive a 30-day training program (Introductory, Practical, and Higher) at three levels (Introductory, Practical, and Higher) in seven-day installments on how to care for poultry, goats, and pigs.
After training, they provide technical expertise on livestock care, advise villagers on the economic benefits of raising livestock for sale, and connect farmers with producer groups and traders, giving them better access to markets to sell their products to sell.
About 30 pashu sakhis are also trained with 45 days of additional training in animal husbandry. These are called as master trainers.

Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Rural Livelihood Mission

It is a centrally sponsored programme, launched by the Ministry of Rural Development in June 2011.
Aim:
- To eliminate rural poverty through the promotion of multiple livelihoods and improved access to financial services for the rural poor households across the country.
- To reach out to all rural poor households and impact their livelihoods.
Functioning:
- It involves working with community institutions through community professionals in the spirit of self-help which is a unique proposition of DAY-NRLM.
- It impacts the livelihoods through universal social mobilization by inter alia organising one-woman member from each rural poor household into Self Help Groups (SHGs), their training and capacity building, facilitating their micro-livelihoods plans, and enabling them to implement their livelihoods plans through accessing financial resources from their own institutions and the banks.
Implementation:
- It is implemented in a Mission mode by special purpose vehicles (autonomous state societies) with dedicated implementation support units at the national, state, district and block levels, using professional human resources in order to provide continuous and long-term handholding support to each rural poor family.
Support Provided:
- There were 63 lakh SHGs comprising seven crore women members in the country which had been granted Rs. 3 lakh crore in loans and the non-performing assets (NPA) amounted to only 2.3%.
- The outstanding loans were to the tune of Rs. 1 lakh crore.
- The government plans to take the scheme to 10 crore women.

8. One Nation, One Election

Subject : Polity

Section: Elections

Concept :

Recently, AIADMK leader Edappadi K. Palaniswami had expressed his support for the ‘One Nation, One Election’ scheme.

One Nation, One Election:

The idea is about structuring the Indian election cycle in a manner so that elections to the Lok Sabha and the State Assemblies are synchronised together so that the election to both can be held within a given span of time.
Elections to Local bodies, which is a state subject, are not included in it.

Advantages

Frequent elections impose a burden on human resources.
They also impede the development process due to the promulgation of Model Code of Conduct.
The idea of ‘one nation, one election’ will drastically cut the election expenditure.
The government will be able to focus on legislation and governance.
Now, they are deviated in the campaign mode periodically.

Concerns and Challenges:

Tenure – Synchronisation would involve curtailment or extension of the tenure of a House.
It is proposed that the Assemblies would be bunched into two categories.
This will be based on whether their terms end close to the 2019 or the 2024 Lok Sabha elections.
The legal validity of this process is however questionable.
Constitutional – The move requires amendment to the Representation of Peoples’s Act 1951.
But attempting to draft a constitutional amendment would highlight the hollowness of the whole idea.
Discussions with the public, political parties and all other stakeholders would have to be reflected in the bill.
Significantly, it requires changes to the Constitution’s basic structure, posing a challenge.
Difficulties – The Election Commission sometimes holds elections to even one state in many phases.
Given this, holding simultaneous elections for the whole country has many practical difficulties.
Dissolution – It is possible for Lok Sabha to be prematurely dissolved on account of a vote of no-confidence.
It is still uncertain if all Assemblies would also be dissolved in that case.
And in case of a mid-term election, the term of such a House would only be for the remainder of its tenure.
Defection – Allowing a one-time waiver of the anti-defection law in the event of a hung House is another proposal.
This is to enable the House to elect a leader.
However, these reforms can be adopted even without simultaneous elections.

9. China and Bhutan agree to push forward border talks

Subject : International Relations

Section: India and neighbours

Context :

The 11th Expert Group Meeting (EGM) on the China-Bhutan Boundary Issues was held in China’s Kunming city.
After the meeting, both sides announced that a positive consensus has been reached to push forward the implementation of all steps of the Three Step-Roadmap.

Boundary Negotiation between Bhutan and China

Although, Bhutan does not have a formal diplomatic relation with China, the country began its first border negotiations with China in 1984.
To date, both countries have held 11 expert group meetings and 24 rounds of border negotiations.
In October 2021, Bhutan and China signed an MoU on the Three-Step Roadmap for Expediting the China-Bhutan Boundary Negotiations.
The three-step roadmap has still not been made public.

China – Bhutan Border Dispute

Bhutan shares a 477 km-long border with China.

China claims certain territories from Bhutan:
In the north – Pasamlung and Jakarlung valleys;
Both of these places are culturally vital for Bhutan.
In the west – Doklam, Dramana, and Shakhatoe, Yak Chu and Charithang Chu, and Sinchulungpa and Langmarpo valleys.
These places are pasture-rich and strategically located in the Bhutan-India-China trijunction, lying close to India’s Siliguri Corridor.
In 2020, China made new claims on Bhutan’s East in the Sakteng sanctuary.
Surprisingly, there has been no mention of Eastern Bhutan in the previous rounds of boundary negotiations held between the two countries.
Hence, addition of Eastern Bhutan in the list of disputed territories has baffled Bhutan.
This eastern sector of Bhutan has a large Bhutanese population, traditional Dzongs (fortified monastery) and two Bhutanese districts since time immemorial.

10. Wolf Warrior Diplomacy

Subject : International Relations

Section: Msc

Concept :

China’s Foreign Ministry spokesman Zhao Lijian, widely regarded as a “wolf warrior” diplomat, has been transferred to the ministry’s Department of Boundary and Ocean Affairs.
The posting of Zhao Lijian to a less high-profile Boundary and Ocean Affairs Department has turned the spotlight on China’s diplomacy, as well as ignited a debate on its recalibration.
Zhao came to the limelight with his tweet accusing the US Army of bringing coronavirus to China in March 2020.

Wolf Warrior Diplomacy

It is a new approach inside China which reinforces a presumed transition of Chinese diplomacy from conservative, passive, and low-key to assertive, proactive that goes as far as insulting or threatening those deemed to violate China’s interests.
This approach is in contrast to prior Chinese diplomatic practices of Deng Xiaoping of 1970s-80s, which had emphasised on
working behind the scenes
avoiding controversy and
Favouring a rhetoric of international cooperation.
‘Wolf-warrior diplomacy’ describes offensives by Chinese diplomats to defend China’s national interests, often in confrontational ways.
Many Chinese believe the Western media portrayal of China is highly biased, often with ideological and racist biases.
Wolf-warrior diplomacy is part of the Chinese government’s endeavour to “tell the China story.”
Wolf warrior diplomacy has been widely used in the past few years, particularly since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Wolf warrior diplomacy has often garnered a strong response and in some cases has provoked a backlash against China.
It can have negative ramifications for bilateral relations with other countries.

Concerns

Just as Chinese society has become more diverse, Chinese diplomats are not monolithic.
There is no consensus within the Chinese foreign policy establishment on whether confrontational diplomacy is desirable, and not all Chinese diplomats are wolf-warriors.
Traditionally minded Chinese diplomats have sought to tamp down the combative impulse and dismissed Zhao’s theory about the US military as “crazy.”
Wolf warrior tactics, combined with great military assertiveness on the China-India border, has ended up pushing India much closer to the U.S., and alienating a billion plus-person economy.
Striking a balance between firmly defending national interests and enhancing soft power is a great challenge in Chinese diplomacy today due to political, ideological, and cultural differences with western powers.

11. Where do Indian cities stand on toxic air?

Subject : Environment

Section: Pollution

Concept :

It is often argued by experts that even after four years of the National Clean Air Campaign (NCAP) the progress has been slow and pollution had not been significantly reduced in most cities.

National Clean Air Campaign (NCAP):

NCAP was launched by the government on 10 January 2019 to commit funds and set targets for the 131 most polluted cities in India.
These cities are called non-attainment cities because they did not meet the national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) for the period of 2011-15 under the National Air Quality Monitoring Program (NAMP).

Particulate matter reduction targets

India’s annual average prescribed limits for PM2.5 and PM10 are 40 micrograms/per cubic metre (ug/m3) and 60 micrograms/per cubic metre
The NCAP initially prescribed reducing PM10 and PM2.5 by 20-30% in 2024 (taking the pollution levels in 2017 as the base year).
However, in September 2022 it was revised to a 40% reduction in particulate matter concentration by 2026.
The government has disbursed nearly ₹6,897.06 to the cities for the programme.
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) coordinates the programme and monitors PM10 levels.
It was further mandated that the cities should quantify improvement beginning from 2020-21, which requires a 15% and more reduction in the annual average PM10 concentration and a concurrent increase in “good air” days to at least 200.
If these targets are not met the Centre would reduce the funds.

Impact of NCAP

It was found in the analysis of the Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA) that only 38 of the 131 cities met the targets for FY21-22.
However, the analysis reports are not available in the public domain and no city action plan was updated on the basis of the studies, as mandated by the NCAP programme.
It was further estimated by CREA that India needs to install more than 300 manual air quality monitoring stations per year to reach the NCAP goal of 1,500 monitoring stations by 2024. It should be noted that only 180 stations have been installed in the last four years.
The NCAP Tracker, a joint project by Climate Trends and Respirer Living Sciences, monitors progress in achieving the 2024 clean air targets.

Particulate Matter (PM)

Also called particle pollution, it is a term for a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the air.
It includes:
- PM10: inhalable particles, with diameters that are generally 10 micrometers and smaller; and
- PM2.5: fine inhalable particles, with diameters that are generally 2.5 micrometers and smaller.
Sources of PM:
- Some are emitted directly from a source, such as construction sites, unpaved roads, fields, smokestacks or fires.
- Most particles form in the atmosphere as a result of complex reactions of chemicals such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, which are pollutants emitted from power plants, industries and automobiles.
Harmful Effects:
- Small particles less than 10 micrometers in diameter pose the greatest problems, because they can get deep into the lungs, and some may even get into the bloodstream.
- Particle pollution exposure has been linked to a variety of problems, including irregular heartbeat, aggravated asthma, decreased lung function and increased respiratory symptoms, such as irritation of the airways, coughing or difficulty breathing.