Daily Prelims Notes 24 September 2024

Daily Prelims Notes

24 September 2024

Table Of Contents

1. World Gorilla Day 2024: Did Hanno the Navigator actually see the great ape on his voyage in the 5th century BCE?
2. World’s oceans near critical acidification level: report
3. Albania plans a Sufi Muslim microstate within its borders
4. Russia and Ukraine spar over Crimea bridge in court
5. After floods, strife-torn Sudan battles cholera as disease kills 388 in two months
6. Nifty and Sensex Outperforming Global Markets in 2024
7. F&O Traders’ Losses and Gains: A SEBI Study Analysis (FY22-FY24)
8. Supreme Court Ruling: Viewing Child Sexual Exploitative and Abuse Material (CSEAM) Now a Criminal Offense
9. Massive Greenland Landslide: Triggering Nine-Day Seismic Waves Worldwide
10. Enabling Transit-Oriented Development: A Path to Sustainable Urban Growth
11. India’s defence exports and humanitarian law
12. India to launch its first mission to Venus in 2028: Everything you need to know

1. World Gorilla Day 2024: Did Hanno the Navigator actually see the great ape on his voyage in the 5th century BCE?

Sub: Env

Sec: Species in news

World Gorilla Day (September 24)

Purpose:

• Celebrate gorillas, our close relatives
• Promote their protection
• Supported by the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals

Origin of the Name:

• Coined in 1847 by Thomas Staughton Savage (US missionary) and Jeffries Wyman (naturalist)
• Based on specimens found in Liberia
  • Liberia was founded to resettle former slaves and free black people from the Americas

Connection to Ancient History: Hanno’s Voyage

The Periplus of Hanno:

• Ancient text describing a Carthaginian voyage along the West African coast
• Led by Admiral Hanno from Carthage
• Intended for colonisation, became an exploration
• The “Gorillai” Encounter:
  • Mentioned in the final sections of the text
  • Describes creatures that may have inspired the term “gorilla”
  • Debate over whether these were humans, apes, or mythical beings

About Gorillas:

Source: DTE

2. World’s oceans near critical acidification level: report

Sub: Geo

Sec: Oceanography

Context:

• A new report from the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK) warns that the world’s oceans are on the verge of becoming too acidic to sustain marine life or stabilize the climate.

Key Findings:

• The PIK’s report highlights nine critical factors essential for regulating Earth’s ability to sustain life.
• Six of these factors have already surpassed safe limits due to human activities.
• Ocean acidification is the next factor likely to breach its threshold, potentially becoming the seventh factor to cross the danger zone.
• Safe Boundaries Already Exceeded:
  • Climate change
  • Loss of species
  • Loss of natural habitats
  • Loss of freshwater resources
  • Rising pollutants (plastics, chemical fertilizers)
• Ocean Acidification:
  • Largely driven by increasing CO2 emissions from burning fossil fuels (oil, coal, gas).
  • As CO2 dissolves in seawater, the oceans become more acidic.
  • Even with rapid cuts in emissions, some ongoing acidification is inevitable due to the existing CO2 already absorbed by the oceans.

Impact of Acidification on Marine Life and Climate:

• Acidic water harms Corals, Shellfish, Phytoplankton (the base of many marine food chains)
• This disruption affects:
  • Food supply for billions of people
  • The ocean’s ability to absorb CO2, worsening global warming.

Tipping Points and Global Boundaries:

• Tipping points refer to thresholds beyond which changes become irreversible and catastrophic.
  • If these points are crossed, billions of people and future generations could face devastating consequences.
• Interconnected Boundaries:
  • All nine planetary boundaries are linked, meaning that breaching one limit can destabilize Earth’s entire life support system.
• Positive Opportunities:
  • Addressing one issue, such as limiting global warming to 1.5°C, can lead to broader benefits across other environmental challenges.

Other Planetary Boundaries:

• Ozone Layer:
  • The only boundary not close to being crossed.
  • Damaged by man-made chemicals, it began to recover after these chemicals were banned in 1987.
• Air Pollution:
  • Concerns about fine particles that can cause heart and lung diseases.
  • Some improvement seen due to efforts like reducing pollutants from petrol and diesel cars, but risks remain in rapidly industrializing countries.

Source: News

3. Albania plans a Sufi Muslim microstate within its borders

Sub: IR

Sec: Places in news

Context:

• Albania plans to create a sovereign microstate within its capital, Tirana, specifically for the Bektashi Muslims, a Sufi sect known for promoting religious harmony and dialogue.
• Key Details:
  • The microstate will function similarly to the Vatican and serve as the political home for the Bektashi community.
  • Bektashi Muslims are Albania’s fourth-largest religious group, following Sunni Muslims, Orthodox Christians, and Catholics.

Purpose and Vision:

• Albanian Prime Minister Edi Rama announced the plan at the United Nations, stating that the goal is to transform the Bektashi World Centre in Tirana into a sovereign state.
  • This new microstate aims to be a symbol of moderation, tolerance, and peaceful coexistence.
• Bektashi Community’s Response:
  • The Bektashi Order praised the decision, emphasising that sovereignty would strengthen religious inclusion, harmony, and dialogue in an increasingly divided world.

Details of the Microstate:

• The new state will cover around 10 hectares (25 acres) in Tirana.
• Citizenship will be restricted to members of the Bektashi clergy and those involved in the administration of the state.
• The microstate’s government will be led by the Bektashi leader and a council responsible for both religious and administrative governance.

About the Bektashi Order:

• The Bektashi Order is an Islamic Sufi mystic order that originated in the 13th-century Ottoman Empire and is considered a tolerant, mystical branch of Islam, welcoming of other religions and philosophies.
  • Named after the saint Haji Bektash Veli.
  • The order is currently led by Baba Mondi, the eighth Dedebaba, and headquartered in Tirana, Albania.

Historical Development:

• Initially a Sufi order within Sunni Islam, by the 16th century, the Bektashi adopted Twelver Shia elements, including:
  • Veneration of ʿAlī, the son-in-law of Muhammad.
  • Reverence for the Twelve Imams and other syncretic beliefs.
• In the 15th century, the order became politically influential, especially through its connection with the Janissary Corps.
• Following the establishment of modern Turkey, Kemal Atatürk banned non-state religious institutions, leading to the Bektashi headquarters relocating to Albania.
  • Salih Nijazi was the last Dede in Turkey and the first in Albania.
• The Bektashi Order played a role in Albanian politics, with some members, including Ismail Qemali, participating in the Albanian National Awakening.
• In the early 20th century, many Bektashi leaders relocated to Albania after being banned in Turkiye by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, the founder of modern Turkey.

Beliefs and Influences:

• Bektashis believe in the ismah (infallibility) of:
  • Islamic prophets and messengers.
  • The Twelve Imams.
  • The Fourteen Infallibles and current Dedebabas.
• The order was influenced by:
  • Hurufis in the 15th century.
  • Qalandariyya Sufism.
  • Prominent figures such as Ahmad Yasawi, Yunus Emre, Shah Ismail, Pir Sultan Abdal, and Gül Baba.
  • The Shia belief system circulating in Anatolia from the 14th to 16th centuries.
• Balım Sultan systematized and structured the Bektashi rituals and practices in the 16th century.

Bektashi Population:

• Estimates of the Bektashi population range between 7 million (2005 estimate) and 20 million (more recent studies).
• In Albania:
  • Bektashis make up 9% of the Muslim population and 5% of the overall population.
• In Turkey:
  • There are approximately 12.5 million Bektashis.
• Bektashis are predominantly found in Anatolia, the Balkans, and among Ottoman-era Greek Muslim communities.

Alevi–Bektashi:

• The term “Alevi–Bektashi” is frequently used in Turkish religious discourse to describe the shared elements of Alevism and Bektashism.

Source: TH

4. Russia and Ukraine spar over Crimea bridge in court

Sub: IR

Sec: Places in news

Context:

• On September 22, 2024, Russia and Ukraine faced off at the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) in The Hague, over access to coastal waters surrounding the Crimea peninsula, which Russia annexed.

Key Points of the Dispute:

• The dispute dates back to September 2016, when Ukraine first brought the case to the PCA, seeking to assert its rights as a coastal state.
• Ukraine’s Argument:
  • Ukraine highlighted the Kerch Bridge, built by Russia to connect Crimea to the mainland, as a barrier that impedes international shipping.
  • Ukraine claims that Russia treats the Kerch Strait, Sea of Azov, and parts of the Black Sea as if they were part of its “21st century empire”.
• Russia’s Response:
  • Kuzmin claimed that the Kerch Bridge was necessary to counter a Ukrainian “blockade” of Crimea and denied any disruption to shipping.

Crimean Bridge (Kerch Strait Bridge / Kerch Bridge)

Location:

• Spans the Kerch Strait
• Connects:
  • Taman Peninsula (Krasnodar Krai, Russia)
  • Kerch Peninsula (Crimea)

Construction:

• Built by: Russian Federation
• After the annexation of Crimea in early 2014

• Length: 19 km (12 mi)

Notable Features:

• Longest bridge in Europe
• Longest bridge ever constructed by Russia

Sea of Azov:

Location and Classification:

• Inland shelf sea in Eastern Europe
• Often considered a northern extension of the Black Sea
• Connected to the Black Sea via the Strait of Kerch
• Bordered by Russia (east) and Ukraine (northwest and southwest)

Geographical Features:

1. Inflow:
   • Major rivers: Don, Kuban, and others
   • Bring sand, silt, and shells
2. Coastal Features:
   • Numerous bays, limans, and narrow spits
   • Low shores and spits with rich vegetation and bird colonies
3. Sea Bottom:
   • Relatively smooth and flat
   • Depth increases gradually towards the middle

• Shallowest sea in the world

There are three major Judicial organizations in the world:

Source: TH

5. After floods, strife-torn Sudan battles cholera as disease kills 388 in two months

Sub: IR

Sec: Places in news

Context:

• Cholera is spreading in, killing at least 388 people and making about 13,000 others sick over the past two months.
• Previous outbreak in 2017 had resulted in over 700 deaths and about 22,000 cases.

Compounding Crises:

• The disease is spreading in areas devastated by recent heavy rainfall and floods especially in eastern Sudan where millions of war displaced people sheltered.
• The convergence of cholera, flooding, and ongoing conflict has created a severe humanitarian crisis in Sudan, exacerbating the suffering of millions.
• Famine was also confirmed in the Zamzam camp for displaced people.

Conflict in Sudan:

• Conflict erupted in April last year due to rising tensions between the military and the Rapid Support Forces (RSF).
• The fighting has been marked by atrocities including mass rape and ethnically motivated killings that amount to war crimes and crimes against humanity, especially in the western region of Darfur, according to the United Nations and international rights groups.
• The war also has created the world’s largest displacement crisis. More than 13 million people have been forced to flee their homes since the fighting began, according to the International Organization for Migration.
• Fighting continues in al-Fasher, the last major city in Darfur that is still held by the military.

Sudan:

• Sudan is a country located in northeastern Africa. The capital is Khartoum.
• It is the third-largest country in Africa.
• The Blue Nile and White Nile rivers merge in Khartoum to form the Nile River.

About Cholera:

• Cholera is a fast-spreading, highly contagious infection causing severe diarrhea and dehydration, potentially leading to death within hours if untreated.
• It is caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae.
• Symptoms: severe watery diarrhoea, Vomiting, Leg cramps etc.
• Transmission occurs through contaminated food and water, particularly in areas with inadequate sanitation and clean drinking water.

6. Nifty and Sensex Outperforming Global Markets in 2024

Sub: Eco

Sec: Capital Market

• Performance Overview:
  • India’s NSE Nifty 50 and S&P BSE Sensex have emerged as top-performing indices in 2024, ranking third and fourth among major global bourses.
  • Nifty gained 18.7%, while Sensex rose 17% during the year, trailing only behind Wall Street’s Nasdaq (22%) and S&P 500 (20.5%).
• Global Comparisons:
  • Japan’s Nikkei 225 and Germany’s DAX followed India’s indices, rising by 13% and 12%, respectively.
  • India’s weightage in the MSCI Index surpassed China for the first time this year, signifying India’s growing influence in the global market.
• Factors Driving the Rally:
  • The market rally is attributed to expectations of policy continuity following India’s national elections in June, along with a strong growth outlook.
  • The rally gained further strength after the U.S. Federal Reserve’s rate cut on September 18, which is expected to boost foreign portfolio inflows.
• Foreign Portfolio Inflows:
  • After a moderation in August, foreign portfolio inflows are on track to hit a six-month high in September, driven by the Fed’s rate cut and India’s strong economic outlook.
• Valuations and Market Conditions:
  • The 12-month forward price-to-earnings (P/E) ratios for Sensex and Nifty are at 23.6 and 24.4, respectively, the highest among emerging markets.
  • Technical indicators suggest that both indices are now in overbought territory, indicating potential caution for investors.

The strong performance of Nifty and Sensex highlights India’s growing prominence in global markets, supported by foreign investments and a robust economic outlook for 2024.

Price-to-Earnings (P/E) Ratio: The P/E ratio compares a company’s stock price to its earnings per share (EPS), helping investors assess if a stock is overvalued or undervalued. A higher P/E suggests expectations of future growth.

NSE Nifty 50: This is India’s benchmark index, representing the weighted average of 50 large-cap Indian companies listed on the National Stock Exchange (NSE).

S&P BSE Sensex: A key stock market index in India, representing the top 30 companies listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE).

Important Indexes of Different Countries:

• US: S&P 500, Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA), Nasdaq Composite.
• UK: FTSE 100.
• Japan: Nikkei 225.
• Germany: DAX
• China: Shanghai Composite Index
• France: CAC 40.

7. F&O Traders’ Losses and Gains: A SEBI Study Analysis (FY22-FY24)

Sub: Eco

Sec: Capital Market

• SEBI Study Findings:
  • A SEBI study revealed that futures and options (F&O) traders in India lost a staggering ₹1.81 lakh crore during the period FY22-FY24.
  • In FY24 alone, individual traders incurred a loss of about ₹75,000 crore.
• Losses Among Individual Traders:
  • Over 91% of individual F&O traders lost money in FY24, affecting 73 lakh traders in India.
  • A notable 43% of F&O traders were under the age of 30 in FY24, up from 31% in FY23, and 93% of them experienced losses, higher than the overall share of 91%.
• Persistence Despite Losses:
  • About 75% of the individuals who lost money continued trading in the markets, even after incurring losses for two consecutive years.
• Income Profile of Traders:
  • A significant portion of traders, three-fourths, reported an annual income of less than ₹5 lakh.
• Contrasting Gains for Proprietary Traders and FPIs:
  • Unlike individual traders, proprietary traders and foreign portfolio investors (FPIs) made significant profits.
• Proprietary traders earned a gross profit of ₹33,000 crore in FY24.
• FPIs also made ₹28,000 crore during the same period.
  • Most of the profits for these entities came from “algo entities” — entities that use algorithm-based trading systems.
• Key Implications:
  • The study highlights a stark contrast between the losses incurred by individual F&O traders and the profits made by proprietary traders and FPIs, underlining the growing role of algorithmic trading in determining market outcomes.

Futures and Options (F&O)

Futures and Options are derivative contracts used in stock markets:

• Futures: An agreement to buy/sell an asset at a future date for a pre-determined price.
• Options: A contract that gives the holder the right, but not the obligation, to buy/sell an asset at a set price before a certain date.

Algorithmic Trading (Algo Trading):

• Algo trading refers to using algorithms to execute trades automatically based on predefined criteria like price, volume, or timing.
• Speed: It allows for superfast order generation, often faster than human traders, leading to significant gains from even millisecond advantages.
• Data Analysis: Algorithms analyze vast amounts of data and execute orders without human intervention.
• Error Minimization: It reduces human error and makes trading decisions based on data patterns.
• SEBI Regulation: In India, the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) regulates algo trading to ensure transparency and manage risks.
• Advantages: Increased speed, more trades per second, and automation allow traders to capitalize on small market inefficiencies.
• Execution: Orders are executed within seconds, preventing significant price changes and giving traders better control over transactions.

8. Supreme Court Ruling: Viewing Child Sexual Exploitative and Abuse Material (CSEAM) Now a Criminal Offense

Sub :Polity

Sec: Legislation in news

Why in News

The Supreme Court of India has delivered a landmark judgment on child sexual exploitation. It held that merely viewing or possessing child sexual exploitative and abuse material (CSEAM) is a criminal offense. The judgment calls for legislative amendments to reflect the seriousness of the crime and proposes replacing the term “child pornography” with a more accurate term—CSEAM.

Criminalization of CSEAM Viewing and Possession

The Supreme Court clarified that viewing, downloading, storing, distributing, or displaying pornographic material involving children attracts criminal liability under the Protection of Children from Sexual Offenses (POCSO) Act and the Information Technology (IT) Act.

Challenge to the High Court’s Ruling: The verdict overturns a previous ruling by the Madras High Court, which had concluded that mere possession or private viewing of child pornographic material was not an offense under POCSO.

Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012

It was enacted to protect the children from offences of sexual assault, sexual harassment and pornography with due regard for safeguarding the interest and well-being of children.

It defines a child as any person below eighteen years of age and regards the best interests and welfare of the child as a matter of paramount importance at every stage, to ensure the healthy physical, emotional, intellectual and social development of the child.

It defines different forms of sexual abuse, including penetrative and non-penetrative assault, as well as sexual harassment and pornography.

It deems a sexual assault to be “aggravated” under certain circumstances, such as when the abused child is mentally ill or when the abuse is committed by a person in a position of trust or authority like a family member, police officer, teacher, or doctor.

It also casts the police in the role of child protectors during the investigative process.

The Act stipulates that a case of child sexual abuse must be disposed of within one year from the date the offence is reported.

It was amended in August 2019 to provide more stringent punishment, including the death penalty, for sexual crimes against children.

Amendment of POCSO Act: The Supreme Court urged Parliament to amend the POCSO Act by replacing the term “child pornography” with “Child Sexual Exploitative and Abuse Material” (CSEAM). This change aims to avoid the trivialization of the crime, as the term “pornography” is often associated with consensual adult acts, which undermines the gravity of child sexual abuse.

Section 15 of the POCSO Act: The court pointed out that Section 15 of the POCSO Act criminalizes the possession and storage of child pornographic material. Merely keeping such material without deletion can be construed as intent to distribute it.

Information Technology (IT) Act Related to Child Pornography:

Section 67B: Punishes publishing, transmitting, or browsing child pornographic material online.

Criminalizes: Creation, collection, and distribution of child pornographic content.

Online facilitation or enticement of children for sexual acts.

Penalty: Up to 5 years imprisonment and a fine of ₹10 lakh for the first conviction; up to 7 years and a ₹10 lakh fine for subsequent offenses.

Section 67: Covers punishment for publishing or transmitting obscene material, which includes child pornography, in electronic form.

Section 69A: Empowers the government to block websites that host child pornographic content.

Section 72: Imposes penalties for unauthorized access to any personal information, including images or videos involving child pornography.

Immediate Government Action

Promulgation of Ordinance: The court suggested that the government should promulgate an ordinance to expedite the adoption of the proposed terminological changes while awaiting parliamentary action.

Court Directives: The Supreme Court also directed lower courts across India to use the term CSEAM in their judgments and orders.

9. Massive Greenland Landslide: Triggering Nine-Day Seismic Waves Worldwide

Sub :Geo

Sec: Geomorphology

Why in News

On September 16, 2023, seismic stations worldwide detected an unusual signal that puzzled scientists. Unlike typical earthquakes, this event was caused by a massive landslide in Greenland’s Dickson Fjord. The landslide displaced water, triggering a mega-tsunami and sending seismic waves reverberating across the globe for nine days. The incident highlights the increasing risks posed by melting glaciers in a warming climate.

The Landslide Event

Location: Dickson Fjord is situated in eastern Greenland, part of the vast fjord systems of the Arctic region.

Depth and Width: The fjord has an approximate depth of 540 meters and a width of 2.7 kilometers, which makes it capable of containing large volumes of water and rock displaced by landslides.

Mega-Tsunami Site: In September 2023, Dickson Fjord was the site of a massive landslide that triggered a 200-meter-high mega-tsunami, which displaced approximately 25 million cubic meters of ice and rock.

About Fjords: A fjord is a long, narrow, deep inlet of the sea between high cliffs or steep slopes, typically formed by the process of glacial erosion.

Geographical Distribution: Fjords are most commonly found in high-latitude regions, especially in areas with a history of glaciation.

Major Fjord Regions:

Norway: Known for having some of the longest fjords in the world.

Greenland: Contains some of the largest fjords, such as Dickson Fjord.

New Zealand: Famous fjords like Milford Sound.

Canada: Fjords are found along the coast of British Columbia and eastern Quebec.

Formation of Fjords: Fjords are formed by the process of glacial erosion. Over time, glaciers carve deep valleys into the Earth’s crust, which later get filled with seawater when the glaciers retreat.

There are two main ways fjords are formed:

A. Glacial Carving: As glaciers move slowly over the land, they erode the underlying bedrock. The glacier carves a U-shaped valley, which is characteristic of fjords. When the glacier retreats, the sea floods the valley, creating a fjord.

Key Feature: Fjords often have steep sides or cliffs and a flat valley bottom.

B. Tectonic and Glacial Interaction: In some cases, tectonic activity (such as the movement of Earth’s crust) causes the land to uplift, while glaciers further shape the landscape by carving valleys. This process results in deeper fjords and sometimes more complex fjord systems.

Example: Fjords in Norway and Greenland, where tectonic uplift contributed to their depth and steep slopes.

Key Features of Fjords:

Deep Inlets: Fjords can be extremely deep. For example, Sognefjord in Norway is over 1,300 meters deep.

Steep Cliffs: Fjords are typically surrounded by high, steep cliffs that can rise dramatically from the water.

U-Shaped Valleys: The valleys formed by fjords are U-shaped due to the glacier’s erosive action.

Long, Narrow Inlets: Fjords are long and narrow, with their length often extending deep inland.

Characteristics of Fjords:

Sill: Many fjords have a shallow area called a sill at their mouth, where the glacier’s terminal moraine (a pile of debris left by the glacier) restricts the water flow.

Seiche: Fjords can experience a phenomenon known as seiche, where waves reflect back and forth within the inlet, as seen in the Dickson Fjord after the 2023 landslide.

Cold-water Coral Reefs: Some fjords, such as those in Norway, are home to unique cold-water coral reefs.

About Sloshing Waves (Seiche Effect): The mega-tsunami waves reflected back and forth within the 540-meter-deep, 2.7-kilometer-wide fjord. These oscillating waves created a “seiche” that persisted for over nine days, with a maximum wave amplitude of 7.4 meters and an oscillation frequency of 11.45 MHz.

Seiche: A seiche is a standing wave that oscillates in a semi-enclosed or fully enclosed body of water, such as lakes, bays, swimming pools, or ocean harbours.

Causes: Strong winds or rapid changes in atmospheric pressure push water from one side of the water body to the other. When the wind stops, water rebounds and oscillates back and forth.

Other Triggers: Earthquakes, Tsunamis and Severe Storm Fronts

Characteristics:

Oscillation: Water continues to slosh back and forth for hours or even days after the initial trigger.

Occurrence: Happens in enclosed or semi-enclosed water bodies like lakes, bays, and ocean shelves.

Seismic Waves Across the Planet: The landslide’s energy rang the Earth’s surface, creating seismic waves that were detected globally. These waves matched the strange, single-frequency seismic signatures recorded by stations, confirming the landslide as the source.

About Seismic Waves: There are several different kinds of seismic waves, and they all move in different ways. The two main types of waves are body waves and surface waves.

Body waves can travel through the earth’s inner layers, but surface waves can only move along the surface of the planet like ripples on water

The first kind of body wave is the P wave or primary wave. This is the fastest kind of seismic wave, and, consequently, the first to ‘arrive’ at a seismic station. The P wave can move through solid rock and fluids,like water or the liquid layers of the earth. It pushes and pulls the rock it moves through just like sound waves push and pull the air.

The second type of body wave is the S wave or secondary wave, which is the second wave felt in an earthquake. An S wave is slower than a P wave and can only move through solid rock, not through any liquid medium. It is this property of S waves that led seismologists to conclude that the Earth’s outer core is a liquid.

S waves move rock particles up and down, or side-to-side–perpendicular to the direction that the wave is traveling in (the direction of wave propagation)

10. Enabling Transit-Oriented Development: A Path to Sustainable Urban Growth

Sub :Geo

Sec: Eco geo

Why in News

India is undergoing a transportation revolution with massive investments in metro rail projects, leading to a renewed focus on Transit-Oriented Development (TOD). TOD has gained attention as a critical approach for integrating urban transport and land use, promoting sustainable economic growth, and addressing challenges such as traffic congestion and pollution in major cities like Bengaluru.

What is TOD?

Transit Oriented Development (TOD) is an innovative urban planning concept that focuses on optimizing land use around public transit infrastructure. It encourages mixed-use, compact development to reduce dependence on private vehicles and enhance accessibility to public transport. TOD aims to achieve sustainable mobility, enhance urban livability, and stimulate economic growth.

National Transit Policies and Investments

Investment in Urban Mobility: India has allocated ₹3 trillion (2022-2027) for metro rail projects across the country.

National TOD Policy (2017): The Indian government introduced the National Transit Oriented Development (TOD) Policy and Metro Rail Policy to integrate transit systems with urban planning.

The Union Budget 2024-25 has proposed the formulation of Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) plans and strategies for 14 large cities with populations exceeding 30 lakhs.

Metro Expansion: Currently, 27 Indian cities are building metro rail systems, with others adopting bus-based and rail-based rapid transit systems.

Investment in public transportation can generate jobs and economic returns that are 5-7 times the initial outlay.

The focus on TOD aims to enhance productivity, reduce traffic congestion, and achieve low-carbon growth.

The World Bank’s 3V Framework guides the successful implementation of TOD by evaluating the following factors:

Node Value: The significance of a station in the transit network based on passenger traffic and connectivity with other transport modes.

Place Value: The quality and attractiveness of the area, including mixed land use and the availability of essential services like healthcare and education.

Market Potential Value: The unrealized economic potential measured by current and future job opportunities in the vicinity, alongside market vibrancy and demand.

Barriers for TOD Implementation

Property Constraints: Limited availability of large, compliant properties near metro stations and restrictive development regulations hinders business growth.

High Property Prices: Rising property costs near metro stations deter smaller businesses from locating in these areas.

Solutions for Optimizing TOD

Incentives for Businesses: Offering location-efficient incentives, such as tax subsidies or additional development rights, can encourage businesses to cluster near transit stations.

Public-Private Partnerships: Collaborations between government agencies and the private sector can fund TOD projects, particularly through mechanisms like value capture financing.

Nodal Agencies: A designated body can streamline TOD planning, ensuring effective coordination between stakeholders.

Examples – Global Cities

Hong Kong serves as a model TOD city, with 57% of jobs within 500 meters of a transit station, and 96% within 2 km. The city’s high transit usage (90% of motorized trips) and low car ownership have contributed to its 50% rise in Gross Value Added per capita over two decades.

Copenhagen, Denmark: The Finger Plan in Copenhagen incorporates TOD principles by ensuring suburban development aligns with rail lines, promoting compact growth and efficient use of public transport.

TOD in Bengaluru’s Future Master Plan

The revision of Bengaluru’s master plan presents an opportunity to prioritize job creation near transit hubs, connecting high-density job clusters and enhancing resource efficiency. This approach will balance economic development with environmental sustainability.

11. India’s defence exports and humanitarian law

Sub: IR

Sec: Int conventions

Context:

• The Supreme Court of India recently dismissed a public interest litigation (PIL) seeking to stop defence exports to Israel due to alleged war crimes in Gaza.
• The Court refrained from intervening, stating that foreign policy is not within its jurisdiction.
• However, the issue has broader implications beyond Israel, given India’s aspirations to become a major defence exporting nation.

Countries that curbed defence exports to Israel:

• Netherlands: Court ordered the government to block export of F-35 fighter jet parts to Israel, based on EU regulations prohibiting exports if there’s a risk of violations of international humanitarian law (IHL).
• United Kingdom: Reviewed Israel’s compliance with IHL under the Export Control Act and concluded there is a clear risk that exported arms could facilitate violations.

Legal Framework in India:

• No equivalent to the UK’s Export Control Act or EU regulations exists in Indian law requiring an assessment of a country’s compliance with IHL obligations in deciding whether to export defence equipment to such a country.
• Indian laws like the Foreign Trade Act (1992) and the Weapons of Mass Destruction and their Delivery Systems (Prohibition of Unlawful Activities) (WMDA) Act, 2005 allow the government to regulate arms exports under certain conditions including national security and international obligations.
• Currently India is not under an obligation to review the IHL compliance of the country to which India is exporting defence goods. Thus, there exists a legal gap.

Role of the Supreme Court:

• The Supreme Court has previously used international law to expand domestic law and to fill the vacuum created by the absence of domestic law on a subject (e.g., Vishakha vs. State of Rajasthan).
• The current situation should be addressed in the same manner rather than as a foreign policy issue.

International law:

Arms Trade Treaty:

• The Arms Trade Treaty (ATT) prohibits supplying arms if there is knowledge they may be used for war crimes.
• The treaty obligates states to assess whether the conventional arms they export would be used by the importing country to commit or facilitate a serious violation of IHL.
• India is not a signatory to the ATT, making it non-binding, though some provisions reflect customary international law.

Geneva conventions:

• Common Article 1 of the Geneva Conventions obligates states to ensure respect for IHL.
• Countries are under obligation not to supply weapons to a country ‘if there is an expectation, based on facts or knowledge of past patterns, that such weapons would be used to violate the Conventions’.
• This is binding on India as India is a party to the conventions.

Recommendations:

• India’s domestic laws (WMDA and FTA) should be amended to include explicit assessments of IHL compliance for importing countries.
• This would enhance India’s credibility as a responsible defence-exporting nation and align its actions with international obligations.

12. India to launch its first mission to Venus in 2028: Everything you need to know

Sub: Sci

Sec: Space sector

Context:

• The Union Cabinet approved India’s first mission to Venus which ISRO aims to launch in March 2028.
• This is the country’s second interplanetary mission after the Mars Orbiter Mission launched in 2013.

Overview of India’s Venus Mission (Shukrayaan):

• ISRO will be responsible for the development of spacecraft and its launch.
• It will be an orbiter missione., the spacecraft will be sent into an orbit around Venus, to study the planet from a distance.
• Objective: To explore the surface and sub-surface of Venus, its atmosphere and its interaction with the Sun.
• Optimal Launch Window: Earth and Venus align for the shortest path every 19 months. The mission is expected to be accomplished on the opportunity available during March 2028.
• Payload: Scientific payloads include a high-resolution Synthetic Aperture Radar, thermal cameras
• Trajectory: Similar to previous Indian space missions, the satellite will gain speed in Earth’s orbit, will get sling-shot towards Venus, and then get captured in its orbit.
• Travel Duration: Once launched, it will take about 140 days to reach Venus after exiting Earth’s orbit.
• Initial Orbit: Satellite will be placed in a highly elliptical orbit of 500 km x 60,000 km around Venus. This high orbit is unsuitable for conducting scientific experiments.
• Target Orbits: The goal is to lower the satellite to either a 300 x 300 km or 200 x 600 km orbit, based on payload requirements. This will be done using Aero-breaking.

Aero-Braking:

• Aerobraking is a technique used in space missions that involves using a planet’s atmosphere to slow down a spacecraft by creating drag, enabling manoeuvres such as orbit adjustments.

Why is it important to study Venus?

• Venus is often called Earth’s twin because it is similar in mass, density, and size. Therefore, studying Venus can provide insights into the evolution of Earth.
• Venus is thought to have had water at some point in its history but has now become a dry and dusty planet.

Differences between Earth and Venus:

• Venus has extremely high surface temperature of around 462⁰C, making it hotter than Mercury. Scientists think this is because of a runaway greenhouse effect.
  • It is thought that the water present on the Venusian surface evaporated because of the proximity of the planet to the Sun. As water vapour is a greenhouse gas, it led to the planet trapping more heat and further evaporating water from its surface.
  • These hot temperatures are the reason why no lander to Venus has survived for more than a couple of hours.
• The atmospheric pressure on Venus is much higher than on Earth. It is almost similar to the pressure felt underneath the oceans on Earth.
• 5% of the atmosphere of Venus is made up of carbon dioxide and there are sulphuric acid clouds on the planet.
• Venus rotates very slowly on its axis as compared to Earth. One rotation of Venus lasts around 243 Earth days.

Other Venus missions:

• There have been several missions to Venus in the past by US, Russia, Japan, and a collaborative mission of the European Space Agency (ESA) with Japan.
• Future missions:
  • US missions DaVinci in 2029 and Veritas in 2031
  • EnVision mission of ESA for 2030