Daily Prelims Notes 25 April 2024

Daily Prelims Notes

25 April 2024

1. What is Art 244(A), the constitutional promise of autonomy driving the election narrative at a tribal seat in Assam?

Subject: Polity

Sec: Constitution

Context:

• In Assam’s tribal-majority Diphu Lok Sabha constituency, which voted on April 26, candidates of all parties have promised the implementation of Article 244(A) of the Constitution to create an autonomous ‘state within a state’.

Where is Diphu, and what is the social profile of this Lok Sabha constituency?

• Diphu is the most sparsely populated of Assam’s 14 Lok Sabha constituencies, with just 8.9 lakh voters. It is reserved for Scheduled Tribes (STs), and covers six legislative Assembly segments in three tribal-majority hill districts of Assam: Karbi Anglong, West Karbi Anglong, and Dima Hasao.
• These three districts are administered under the provisions of the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution, which describes the Provisions as to the Administration of Tribal Areas in the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.
• These areas come under two autonomous councils: the Karbi Anglong Autonomous Council (KAAC) and the North Cachar Hills Autonomous Council. 
• Voters at the seat belong to various communities: Karbi, the third largest tribe in the state, Dimasa, Hmar, Kuki, Rengma Naga, Zeme Naga, Bodo, Garo, Assamese, Bengali, Bihari, Gorkha, etc.
• However, the seat has been represented by members of the Karbi community since 1977.

What is Article 244(A) of the Constitution?

• Article 244(A) was inserted by The Constitution (Twenty-second Amendment) Act, 1969, which enabled Parliament to pass an Act to form within the State of Assam an autonomous State comprising (whether wholly or in part) all or any of tribal areas, including Karbi Anglong.
• This autonomous state would have its own Legislature or Council of Ministers or both. 
• This provision goes a step further than the provisions under the Sixth Schedule, which are already in place in these areas.
• The autonomous councils under the Sixth Schedule have elected representatives for more decentralized governance of these tribal areas, but they have limited legislative powers, do not have control over law and order, and have only limited financial powers.

When did the demand for autonomy start, and how has it played out so far?

• The demand for autonomy is as old as the movement in the hill areas of undivided Assam, which began in the 1950s, seeking a separate hill state. 
• This movement resulted in the creation of the full-fledged state of Meghalaya in 1972  however, because of the promise extended through Article 244(A), the leaders of the Karbi Anglong region opted to remain with Assam.

About ASDC:

• The Autonomous State Demand Committee (ASDC) — which was set up as a mass organization to press for the region’s autonomy, and which continues to operate today — along with student bodies in the region, signed a Memorandum of Settlement with the state and central governments in 1995 for enhancing the powers of the two autonomous councils in the region by increasing the number of departments under their charge to 30 from 10.
• Over the years, as autonomy for the region remained elusive, the demand for implementation of Article 244(A) also took the form of an armed insurgency. 

2. Case before Supreme Court: Can Govt redistribute privately owned property?

Subject: Polity

Sec: Constitution

Context:

• The Supreme Court (SC) on Wednesday began hearing an unrelated case about whether the government can acquire and redistribute privately owned properties if they are deemed as “material resources of the community” as mentioned in Article 39(b) of the Constitution.

More on news:

• Since 1977, the apex court has weighed in on the interpretation of Article 39(b) on multiple occasions —most notably, in State of Karnataka v Shri Ranganatha Reddy (1977). 

Important minority opinion:

• Falling under Part IV of the Constitution titled as Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP),Article 39(b) places an obligation on the state to create policy towards securing the ownership and control of the material resources of the community that are so distributed as best to subserve the common good.
• DPSP are meant to be guiding principles for the enactment of laws, but are not directly enforceable in any court of law.
• It was Justice Krishna Iyer’s minority opinion which would become influential in years to come.
• To exclude ownership of private resources from the coils of Article 39(b) is to cipherise (make hidden) its very purpose of redistribution the socialist way.

Interpretation of Article 39(b):

• This interpretation of Article 39(b) was later affirmed by a five-judge Bench in Sanjeev Coke Manufacturing Company v Bharat Coking Coal (1983), where the court upheld central legislation that nationalized coal mines and their respective coke oven plants relying on what Justice Iyer had ruled.
• The concurring opinion of Justice Paripoornan in the nine-judge Bench case of Mafatlal Industries Ltd v Union of India (1996) also relied on the interpretation of Article 39(b) offered by Justice Iyer and the Bench in Sanjeev Coke Manufacturing.
• The words ‘material resources’ occuring in Article 39 (b) will take in natural or physical resources and also movable or immovable property and it would include all private and public sources of meeting material needs, and not merely confined to public possessions.

Cessed properties dispute:

• The case currently before the SC arose out of a challenge to the 1986 amendment to the Maharashtra Housing and Area Development Act, 1976 (MHADA) by owners of ‘cessed’ properties in Mumbai.
• MHADA was enacted in 1976 to address a major problem in the city — old, dilapidated buildings housing (poor) tenants despite becoming increasingly unsafe. MHADA imposed a cess on the buildings’ occupants, which would be paid to the Mumbai Building Repair and Reconstruction Board (MBRRB) to oversee repair and restoration projects.
• In 1986, invoking Article 39(b), Section 1A was inserted to MHADA to execute plans for acquiring lands and buildings, in order to transfer them to “needy persons” and the “occupiers of such lands or buildings”.
• The amendment also inserted Chapter VIII-A to the legislation, which contains provisions allowing the state government to acquire cessed buildings (and the land they are built on) if 70% of the occupants make such a request.

Over three decades with SC:

• The Property Owners’ Association in Mumbai challenged Chapter VIII-A of the MHADA at the Bombay High Court claiming that the provisions violate the property owners’ Right to Equality under Article 14 of the Constitution.
• The court held that laws enacted in furtherance of DPSP could not be challenged on the grounds that they violated the right to equality, as per Article 31C of the Constitution (“Saving of laws giving effect to certain directive principles”).
• The Association appealed the decision in the SC in December 1992. In the apex court, the central question became whether “material resources of the community” as per Article 39(b) includes privately owned resources — which would include cessed buildings.

3. Sam Pitroda controversy: How inheritance tax works

Subject: Economy

Sec: Fiscal Policy

Context:

• Prime Minister Narendra Modi alleged on Wednesday that the Congress would snatch property left behind by people for their children.

More on news:

• Sam Pitroda, a former adviser to Rajiv Gandhi and an associate of Rahul Gandhi, described the inheritance tax in the United States as an “interesting law”.
• There have been discussions about levying a global minimum corporate tax rate, and a proposal in the US to levy a minimum 25% tax on taxpayers with wealth over $100 million.
• France and Brazil have pushed for a G20 declaration on taxing the super rich by July.
• The Biden Administration has proposed legislation for a ‘Billionaire Minimum Income Tax’ of at least 25% on their full income, including unrealised gains.

History of Inheritance tax:

• India did have an inheritance (or death) tax once. 
• The tax, which was known as estate duty, was introduced in 1953, and was abolished in 1985 by the government of Rajiv Gandhi.
• India also had a wealth tax and a gift tax, which were abolished in 2015 and 1998 respectively.

Ways to tax wealth:

• Taxes are levied on the flow of income on wealth or at the time of transfer of wealth or on the stock of wealth linked to the value of owned assets as a one-time levy.
• There can be a capital levy on income from wealth or ownership of assets resulting in capital gains, transfer taxes in the form of wealth tax, inheritance tax, estate tax, or gift tax at the time of transfer of wealth or assets.
• Taxes can also be levied on a combination of income and wealth.

The taxes in India:

• The now abolished estate duty was inheritance tax with a threshold of Rs 1 lakh, and progressive rates from 5% to 40% on the principal value of the estate exceeding Rs 20 lakh. 
• The Estate Duty Act, 1953 was amended in 1958 to change the definition of accountable person, lower the applicable threshold, and redefine slabs.
• The Narendra Modi government announced the abolition of wealth tax and its replacement with a surcharge on the super rich in the Budget for 2015-16. 

Cost and revenues:

• High tax rates do not make sense if the cost of collection and administration of these taxes are high compared to the revenues that arise.
• In the initial years of estate duty, collections were lower than the budgeted estimates.
• The high cost of collection and double taxation in various forms of wealth tax were cited as reasons for abolishing estate duty.
• The high cost of collection and double taxation in various forms of wealth tax were cited as reasons for abolishing estate duty.
• Gift tax was abolished in 1998 citing lower revenues. 
• Gift tax has been levied in India since 1958.
• The Gift Tax Act has also not been successful as an instrument to curb tax evasion and avoidance.

Other international practices:

• A March 2024 note by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), said tax rates on wealth have generally declined around the world over the past decades, with a decline in average corporate income tax rates being an important component across country groups of all income levels.
• The Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, the IMF said 12 OECD members had wealth taxes in 1990, but only three (Switzerland, Spain, Norway) now levy a broad-based wealth tax.

4. EVMs’ control units do not recognise parties: SC

Subject: Polity

Sec: Elections

Supreme Court observations on EVM-VVPAT:

• The Supreme Court described the microcontrollers in electronic voting machines (EVMs) as “agnostic,” meaning they do not recognize political parties or candidates but only register the buttons pressed by voters.
• The buttons on the EVMs are interchangeable, varying their assignment from one constituency to another. Justice Sanjiv Khanna emphasized that EVM source code should remain undisclosed to prevent misuse and maintain integrity.
• The microcontrollers are one-time programmable and not accessible after manufacturing.

About EVM Machine:

• An electronic voting machine is a portable voting machine based on electronics. Two main technologies exist: optical scanning and direct recording (DRE).
  • In an optical scan voting system, or marksense, each voter’s choices are marked on one or more pieces of paper, which then go through a scanner. The scanner creates an electronic image of each ballot, interprets it, creates a tally for each candidate, and usually stores the image for later review.
  • In a DRE voting machine system, a touch screen displayschoices to the voter, who selects choices, and can change their mind as often as needed, before casting the vote. Staff initialize each voter once on the machine, to avoid repeat voting. Voting data are recorded in memory components and can be copied out at the end of the election.

Introduction of EVM in India:

• In 1989, the Election Commission (EC) developed India’s indigenous Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) in alliance with two central government undertakings–  the Electronics Corporation of India (ECIL) and Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL).
• EVMs were used for the first time in the Goa State Assembly elections of 1999.

Working Module of EVM:

• An EVM consists of a control unit and a balloting unit connected together by a five-metre cable. The control unit belongs to a polling officer while the balloting unit is kept in a compartment to cast votes. EVMs can even be used in areas with no electricity, as they can be operated on alkaline batteries.
• The control unit is kept in the polling station with the Presiding Officer and is placed inside the voting compartment as the votes are counted through it whereas the balloting units are kept in the voting compartment for electors to cast their votes.
• The balloting unit presents the voter with blue buttons horizontally labelled with corresponding party symbols and candidate names. The Control Unit, on the contrary, provides the officer-in-charge with a ‘Ballot’ marked button to proceed to the next voter, instead of issuing a ballot paper to them.

What is VVPAT?

• Voter verifiable paper audit trail (VVPAT) or verified paper record (VPR) serves as a feedback mechanism in ballotless voting systems.
• It enables voters to confirm their vote has been accurately cast by providing a paper record with the candidate’s name and party symbol.
• VVPAT acts as an independent check on voting machines, helping to detect fraud or malfunctions and allowing for an audit of the electronic votes.
• Although its adoption has increased in the United States, it remains less common than hand-marked ballots.

Source: TH

5. Why was the BJP candidate declared winner in Surat?

Subject: Polity

Sec: Elections

Context:

• The BJP’s candidate from the Surat Lok Sabha constituency in Gujarat has been declared elected unopposed. This follows the rejection of the nomination paper of the candidate set up by the Congress party and the withdrawal of nominations by other candidates.

What is the law for nomination?

• Section 33 of the Representation of the People Act, 1951, details the requirements for a valid nomination in India.
• It allows an elector above 25 years of age to contest Lok Sabha elections from any constituency. 
• A candidate from a recognized party requires one proposer from the same constituency, whereas candidates from unrecognized parties or independents need ten proposers.
• Each candidate may submit up to four nomination papers with different sets of proposers to safeguard against the potential disqualification of one set.
• Section 36 outlines the scrutiny process of nomination papers by the Returning Officer (RO), stating that nominations should not be rejected over minor defects. However, it emphasizes that a nomination can be rejected if the candidate’s or proposer’s signature is found to be not genuine.

What is the current issue?

• In the Surat constituency, Congress candidate Nilesh Kumbhani’s nomination was contested due to allegedly forged signatures from his proposers—his brother-in-law, nephew, and business partner.
• After the Returning Officer (RO) received affidavits from the proposers denying their signatures on Kumbhani’s papers and given that the proposers were not presented within the required timeframe, the nomination was rejected. 
• The Congress party had also nominated Suresh Padsala as a substitute, but his nomination faced rejection for similar reasons concerning the authenticity of the proposer’s signature.
• Consequently, with other nominations either rejected or withdrawn, the BJP candidate Mukesh Dalal was declared the winner.

What is the legal recourse?

• There have been at least 35 candidates who have been elected unopposed to the Lok Sabha. The majority of them were in the first two decades after independence with the last being in 2012.
• The Congress party has alleged coercion in the retraction of proposers’ signatures for their candidate in the Surat constituency and has approached the Election Commission (EC) to overturn the Returning Officer’s (RO) decision and to restart the election process.
• However, under Article 329(b) of the Constitution and the Representation of the People Act (RP Act),elections can only be challenged through an election petition in the High Court.
• One valid reason for such a petition includes the improper rejection of nomination papers. The Congress party’s legal recourse is to file an election petition in the Gujarat High Court, which is mandated by the RP Act to try to conclude such cases within six months, although this timeframe has often not been adhered to in the past.

Source: TH

6. RBI Orders Kotak Bank to Stop Adding Customers Online

Subject: Economy

Sec: Monetary Policy

• Directive: The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) issued a directive to Kotak Mahindra Bank Ltd. (Kotak Bank) instructing it to immediately halt onboarding new customers through its online and mobile banking channels and refrain from issuing fresh credit cards.
• Existing Customer Services: Kotak Bank is permitted to continue providing services to its existing customers, including those with credit cards.
• Reasoning: The directive stems from significant concerns identified during the RBI’s IT examination of the bank for the years 2022 and 2023. These concerns pertain to various areas, including IT inventory management, user access management, data security, and business continuity and disaster recovery practices.
• Regulatory Compliance: Kotak Bank was found to be deficient in its IT risk and information security governance for two consecutive years, contrary to regulatory guidelines. Despite corrective action plans issued by the RBI, the bank was significantly non-compliant.
• Operational Resilience: The bank’s Core Banking System (CBS) and digital banking channels experienced frequent and significant outages over the past two years, leading to customer inconveniences. The RBI noted the bank’s material deficiency in building necessary operational resilience due to inadequate IT systems and controls.
• Engagement with RBI: Despite continuous high-level engagement with Kotak Bank to address these concerns and strengthen its IT resilience, the outcomes remained unsatisfactory.
• Rapid Growth in Digital Transactions: The volume of the bank’s digital transactions, including credit card transactions, has witnessed rapid growth, further straining its IT systems.

Law :

The curbs have been imposed under Section 35A of the Banking Regulation Act. This section is invoked in lieu of public interest, interest of banking policy or when affairs of a bank are detrimental to depositors or prejudicial to the interest of the bank.

7. RBI Issues FEMA Norms for Direct Listing on International Exchange

Subject: Economy

Sec: External Sector

• Regulatory Push: The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) introduced regulations under the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) to facilitate the listing of Indian companies on international stock exchanges.
• Proceeds Handling: According to the notification, the proceeds from the purchase or subscription of equity shares of an Indian company listed on an International Exchange must either be remitted to a bank account in India or deposited in a foreign currency account of the Indian company.
• Sale Proceeds: The sale proceeds of equity shares (net of taxes) can be remitted outside India or credited to the bank account of the permissible holder.
• Transaction Reporting: Reporting regarding foreign exchange transactions will be conducted by the investee Indian company through an authorized dealer. If a Foreign Portfolio Investor (FPI) makes an investment through a stock exchange, the authorized dealer will report to the RBI.
• Utilization of Funds: Funds raised through External Commercial Borrowings (ECBs), American Depository Receipts (ADRs), Global Depository Receipts (GDRs), or through the direct listing of shares of Indian companies on International Exchanges, but yet to be utilized or repatriated, will be held in foreign currency accounts with a bank outside India.

Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA)

The Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) is a key legislation governing cross-border trade and payments in India.

Overview:

• FEMA regulates foreign exchange transactions and procedures in India.
• It was enacted in 1999, replacing the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA).
• The head office of FEMA is the Enforcement Directorate, located in Delhi.

 Entities and Transactions Covered:

• Indian citizens residing in India or abroad (NRIs).
• Overseas companies owned 60% or more by NRIs.
• Associate branches or subsidiaries of Indian companies located outside India.
• Exports and imports of goods and services.
• Banking, financial, and insurance services provided outside India.
• Cross-border sale, purchase, and exchange of goods and services.

FEMA plays a crucial role in regulating and facilitating cross-border transactions, ensuring compliance with legal and regulatory requirements.

ADRs and GDRs

ADR (American Depository Receipts):

• ADRs are issued by a US bank and represent a specific number of shares in a foreign company.
• They are listed and traded on US financial markets, making it easier for US investors to buy shares of foreign companies.
• ADRs allow foreign companies to access US capital markets without directly listing their shares on US exchanges.
• ADRs are denominated in US dollars and are subject to US securities regulations.
• They provide investors with dividends and capital gains in US dollars.

GDR (Global Depositary Receipts):

• GDRs are similar to ADRs but are issued by a depository bank located outside the company’s home country.
• They represent shares of a foreign company and are traded in markets outside the company’s home country.
• GDRs are typically traded in European markets and denominated in currencies other than the US dollar.
• They allow foreign companies to raise capital from international investors by offering shares in global markets.
• GDRs provide investors with exposure to foreign companies while trading in their local currency.

8. The Indian seafarer deserves better in choppy high seas

Subject: IR

Sec: Places in news

Context:

• In response to increased safety concerns for Indian seafarers due to recent attacks in regions like the Red Sea and the Strait of Hormuz, India presented three papers at the 111th Session of the International Maritime Organization’s (IMO) Legal Committee.

Details:

• These papers focus on seafarers’ security, contractual terms, and wider maritime security challenges.
• India emphasized the importance of a comprehensive approach to maritime security and advocated for better contractual conditions for seafarers.
• It also recognized the IMO’s efforts against maritime fraud and urged greater international collaboration to address threats like piracy, armed robbery, extremist attacks, regional conflicts, and new risks such as drone attacks and the deployment of maritime weapons.

Protection against sea piracy:

• Recent pirate attacks off the coast of Somalia, including hijackings of vessels like the MV Ruen and MV Lila Norfolk, mark a resurgence of piracy.
• In response, India has urged for increased vigilance, proactive measures, and international cooperation under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) to safeguard seafarers.
• India, home to 9.35% of the world’s seafarers and ranking third globally, faces significant challenges, evidenced by incidents like the seizure of MSC Aries and the prolonged detention of MT Heroic Idun in Nigeria.

International Maritime Organization’s (IMO) Legal Committee:

• The Legal Committee (LEG) deals with any legal matters within IMO’s scope.
• This includes liability and compensation issues related to the operation of ships, including damage, pollution, passenger claims, and wreck removal.
• The Committee also addresses seafarer matters, including the fair treatment of seafarers, and issues concerning unlawful activities at sea which affect the safety of navigation.

Human Rights at Sea campaign:

• The Indian government and the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) have initiated the ‘Human Rights at Sea’ campaign to address abuses faced by Indian seafarers, including illegal detentions and unsafe conditions in foreign waters.
• The initiative highlights cases such as 200 Indian seafarers detained in foreign jails and 65 stranded in Indonesia for 151 days, emphasizing the challenges in holding ship owners accountable, especially those operating under foreign registrations to evade taxes.

Maritime piracy:

• Maritime piracy remains a significant threat, with a recent report from the International Maritime Bureau showing a more than 10% increase in serious piracy incidents in the last 10 months, with armed pirates boarding nearly 90% of targeted ships.
• Solutions include deploying private guards and addressing the root causes of piracy on land.

Maritime Labour Convention, 2006

• The Maritime Labour Convention (MLC), 2006, was adopted by the 94th (Maritime) Session of the International Labour Conference on February 23, 2006.
• Purpose: It revises and consolidates 37 existing conventions and related recommendations.
• Format and Updates: The MLC, 2006 introduces a new format and updates to reflect modern conditions and language.
• Comprehensive Coverage: Sets forth comprehensive rights and standards for the world’s 1.5 million seafarers concerning their working and living conditions.
• Key Provisions Include:
  • Minimum age for seafarers
  • Employment agreement standards
  • Regulations on hours of work and rest
  • Payment of wages
  • Entitlement to paid annual leave
  • Rights to repatriation
  • On-board medical care
  • Use of recruitment and placement services
  • Standards for accommodation, food, and catering
  • Health and safety protection
  • Accident prevention
  • Complaint procedures for seafarers

Places in news:

• Red Sea:
  • Bordering Countries: Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Sudan, Eritrea and Djibouti.
  • Connected to the Indian Ocean in the south through the Bab el Mandeb Strait and the Gulf of Aden.
  • In the north are the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez (leading to the Suez Canal).
• Strait of Hormuz:
  • A strait between the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman.
  • It provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean and is one of the world’s most strategically important choke points.
  • On the north coast lies Iran, and on the south coast lies the Musandam peninsula, shared by the United Arab Emirates and the Musandam Governorate, an exclave of Oman.
• Gulf of Guinea
  • The Gulf of Guinea is the northeasternmost part of the tropical Atlantic Ocean from Cape Lopez in Gabon, north and west to Cape Palmas in Liberia.
  • Null Island, defined as the intersection of the Equator and Prime Meridian (zero degrees latitude and longitude), is in the gulf.
  • Among the many rivers that drain into the Gulf of Guinea are the Niger and the Volta.
  • The coastline of the gulf includes the Bight of Benin and the Bight of Bonny.

Source: TH

9. SC stays construction of 4 dams in Kalesar Wildlife Sanctuary

Subject: Environment

Sec: Protected Areas

Context:

• The Supreme Court has halted the construction of four dams planned within the Kalesar Wildlife Sanctuary in Haryana’s Yamunanagar district.

Details:

• The court highlighted concerns that the dams would negatively impact the local wildlife, population, and ecosystem, and questioned the effectiveness of the dams in fulfilling their intended purpose.

Kalesar Wildlife Sanctuary:

• Kalesar National Park and adjacent Kalesar Wildlife Sanctuary are located in Kalesar, Yamunanagar district, Haryana, India, 46 km from Yamunanagar city and 122 km from Chandigarh.
• Established in 2003.
• Named after the Kalesar Mahadev temple located in this national park.
• These areas are contiguous with Simbalbara National Park in Himachal Pradesh and Rajaji National Park in Uttarakhand.
• Kalesar is known for leopards, panthers, elephants, red jungle fowl, and bird-watching.
• Vegetation: The area, situated in the Shivalik foothills, is predominantly covered with sal trees, along with Semul, Amaltas, and Bahera trees.

Source: TH

10. Powerful antidote to toxins in cobra, krait venoms developed

Subject: Science and tech

Sec: Health

Context:

• Annually, snakebites result in over 100,000 deaths and leave approximately 400,000 people permanently disabled. The burden is particularly severe in low and middle-income countries in Africa and Asia.

Details:

• In India alone, about 58,000 people die each year from snake bites, as reported in 2020.
• Despite its severity,snakebiteenvenoming is often overlooked and termed a “poor man’s disease,” leading to insufficient attention and resources directed toward addressing its impacts.
• High incidence rates of snakebites combined with poor access to adequate healthcare in some countries result in a high number of fatalities.
• In 2017, the World Health Organization (WHO) recognized the severity of the issue by classifying snakebite envenoming as the highest priority neglected tropical disease, aiming to raise global awareness and response.

Antivenom:

• Antivenom, also known as antivenin, venom antiserum, and antivenom immunoglobulin, is a specific treatment for envenomation.
• It is composed of antibodies and used to treat certain venomous bites and stings.
• Antivenoms are recommended only if there is significant toxicity or a high risk of toxicity.
• The specific antivenom needed depends on the species involved. It is given by injection.
• Due to the high cost of producing antibody-based antivenoms and their short shelf lives when not refrigerated, alternative methods of production of antivenoms are being actively explored.
  • One such different method of production involves production from bacteria.
  • Another approach is to develop targeted drugs (which, unlike antibodies, are usually synthetic and easier to manufacture at scale).
• Antivenom was first developed in the late 19th century and came into common use in the 1950s.
• It is on the World Health Organization’s List of Essential Medicines.

Traditional method used for the production of antivenom:

• The production of antivenom currently relies on an outdated method where horses are injected with snake venom, and their blood is harvested for antibodies.
• However, this process also yields antibodies irrelevant to human treatment and increases the variability and dosage required for antivenoms.
• Moreover, the use of animal-derived antibodies heightens the risk of adverse or allergic reactions in humans.

Development of synthetic human antibodies to neutralize venoms:

• Prompted by concerns about traditional antivenom production, a consortium funded by the Wellcome Trust and led by scientists, including Kartik Sunagar of the Indian Institute of Science in Bengaluru, has developed a synthetic human antibody that can broadly neutralize a common toxin found in various snake venoms.
• This new approach addresses the problem of regional and species-specific venom variations that make existing antivenoms less effective.
• The researchers aim to create a more universally applicable antivenom solution.

Three-finger toxins (3FTxs) and α-neurotoxins:

• Researchers focused on creating an antivenom against α-neurotoxins, a subtype of three-finger toxins (3FTxs) found in the venom of elapids like cobras and mambas.
• These toxins block receptors that respond to the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, leading to paralysis and potentially death.
• To find an effective antibody, the team synthesized variants of these toxins and screened billions of human antibodies displayed on yeast cells, identifying those that most effectively bound to the toxins.
• This process enabled them to select a group of antibodies that could neutralize various 3FTx variants, offering a potential advancement in antivenom development.

Antibody 95Mat5:

• Researchers conducted in vitro tests on human cells with various antibodies, identifying one named 95Mat5 as highly effective against α-neurotoxins.
• Dr.Sunagar’s group further tested this antibody in vivo in mice, using lethal doses of α-bungarotoxin from many-banded kraits and whole venoms from king cobras, black mambas, and monocled cobras.
• The antibody 95Mat5 successfully protected mice from all tested venoms except for king cobra venom, where it only delayed death.
• Researchers noted a surprising synergistic effect, where neutralizing a minor component of the black mamba’s venom provided complete protection against the other toxins.

Potential for development of a ‘universal antivenom’:

• The antibody 95Mat5 could be key in developing future antivenoms for snakes like mambas and cobras in Africa and Asia.
• The study revealed that 95Mat5 binds precisely where the toxin would typically affect human nerve and muscle cells, effectively neutralizing the toxin by preventing its deadly interaction.
• This finding is a significant step toward a universal antivenom, with ongoing research aimed at identifying similar antibodies for other snake venom toxins.

Source: TH