Daily Prelims Notes 26 March 2024

Daily Prelims Notes

26 March 2024

Table Of Contents

1. Water crisis in Bengaluru linked to urbanization of Kodagu
2. Water levels less than 25% in many major dams in the south
3. Robusta coffee price touches all-time high amid global shortage
4. Hepatitis B is a public health concern in India; but very few know about its transmission, effects & vaccination
5. El Nino impact leaves Malawi and region on the edge of a hunger crisis
6. Why does the weakness of low durability dog newer vaccines?
7. UN passes resolution calling for ceasefire in Gaza during Ramadan
8. For the IS, Russia is an enemy that destroyed its plans in Syria
9. K. issues online ads to deter illegal Channel crossings
10. On campaigning in the name of religion
11. How are semiconductors fabricated?
12. Apple, Google, Meta targeted in EU’s first Digital Markets Act probes
13. Agnikul’s maiden test launch of Agnibaan Sorted mission postponed

1. Water crisis in Bengaluru linked to urbanization of Kodagu

Subject: Geography

Section: Indian Physical geography

Context:

• The Save Kodagu and Cauvery Campaign has raised concerns about the adverse effects of rampant commercial land conversion and urbanisation in Kodagu, the birthplace of the Cauvery River.

Save Kodagu and Cauvery Campaign:

• Aim:
  • This campaign highlights the critical role of Kodagu as the principal catchment area for the Cauvery, which significantly contributes to the water supply of Bengaluru.
  • The Save Kodagu and Cauvery Campaign’s concerns underscore the need for sustainable development policies to preserve the Cauvery’s water supply for Bengaluru and other dependent regions.
• Cause of water crisis:
  • The continued urban expansion and environmental degradation in Kodagu could lead to a scenario where the district’s cities grow significantly, potentially affecting the water supply to Bengaluru and neighbouring regions.
• Consequences:
  • The campaign highlighted the potential long-term consequences of unchecked urbanisation in Kodagu, such as the transformation of several areas into large urban centers and the possible escalation of the population.
  • Such developments could strain water resources, requiring drastic measures like invoking the National Disaster Act in the event of drought conditions.
  • This could severely impact local agriculture, particularly coffee production, by restricting water usage for irrigation.

Kodagu- Place of origin of Cauvery river:

• Kodagu, which is the main catchment area as well as place of origin of the Cauvery river, is under stress due to the sensitive ecosystem.
• Located in the Western Ghats region of Karnataka.
• The Krishnaraja Sagar (KRS) reservoir is located downstream the Cauvery river.

2. Water levels less than 25% in many major dams in the south

Subject: Geography

Section: Indian Physical geography

Context:

• Most of the major reservoirs in the southern States of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana are filled to only 25% of their capacity or less.

Details:

• Some large dams such as the Tungabhadra in Karnataka and the Nagarjuna Sagar on the Andhra Pradesh-Telangana border are filled to 5% or less of their full capacity.
• Other large dams such as Mettur in Tamil Nadu and Srisailam on the Andhra Pradesh-Telangana border are also filled to less than 30% of their capacity.
• Across India, the current water level in 150 primary reservoirs put together as a share of their total capacity stood at 38%.
• All the reservoirs put together are filled to only 23% of their capacity in this region, which is about 17% points lower than the levels recorded last year and 9 points lower than the 10-year average.
• Status of reservoirs of other region:
  • No other region – central, west, east, or north – shows such a drastic difference in levels compared to last year as well as the 10-year average.
  • In the northern and central regions, the reservoirs are filled to 33% and 46% of their capacities, respectively, similar to the 10-year average levels recorded in those regions.
  • In the western region, the reservoirs are filled to 45% of their capacity, slightly higher than their 10-year average, while the 49% recorded in the eastern region was only marginally lower than the 10-year average.

Some important reservoirs/dams of Southern India:

3. Robusta coffee price touches all-time high amid global shortage

Context: Robusta coffee farmers in South India are jubilant post-harvest with their produce fetching an all-time high price. 

Reasons for high price

• Decline of 30% in Robusta production this year owing to climatic vagaries, especially the scanty blossom shower in Robusta-growing regions last year. Wayanad in Kerala, which is the largest Robusta coffee-producing district in the country after Coorg in Karnataka, received a rainfall of 29.3 mm in the first week of January. Major parts of the district received no rain since then
• A sharp decline in the production of Robusta coffee—nearly 2 million bags— in Vietnam, a major Robusta coffee-growing country, has also led to the rise in prices

Total Coffee production in India

According to the Coffee Board of India, the total production of coffee in India during the 2022-23 fiscal was 3,52,000 tonnes, including 2,52,000 tonnes of Robusta coffee. The total value of India’s coffee exports has risen to ₹5,279 crore during the ongoing coffee season, from ₹3,982 crore during the same period in the earlier season

Geographical Conditions

• Coffee plant requires hot and humid climate with temperatures ranging between 15°C and 28 °C and rainfall from 150 to 250 cm.
• Frost, snowfall, high temperature above 30°C and strong sun shine is not good for coffee crop and is generally grown under shady trees.
• Dry weather is necessary at the time of ripening of the berries.
• Stagnant water is harmful and the crop is grown on hill slopes at elevations from 600 to 1,600 metres above sea level.
• Well drained, loams containing good deal of humus and minerals like iron and calcium are ideal for coffee cultivation.

Blossom Shower:

• Pre-monsoon showers are the key to plantation crops such as tea, rubber, coffee, pepper and cardamom in South India. However Coeffee varieties like Arabica coffee needs 90-120 days stress period and robusta about 60 days to blossom. But the rains every month since December have left the lands with moisture and vegetative growth preventing reproductive growth.
• Frequent rains will also help pepper catkins to gain weight, though new ones may not appear until the plants undergo a stress period.

About Pre-Monsoon shower

• Pre-monsoon shower or summer rain is formed due to the storm over the Bay of Bengal.
• It is a mixture of dry and moist winds. It at times gives rise to local storms, such as the occurrence of violent winds, heavy rain and hailstorms.
• These showers’ effect can be seen in two ways such as in some states of northern India it reduces the intensity of heat waves, but it also come with the blessing of showers in the Eastern and Southern India for the farmers.
• Different names of pre-monsoon shower

1. Tea Shower in Assam
2. Kalbaishakh in West Bengal
3. Mango Shower in Kerala and Coastal areas of Karnataka
4. Cherry Blossoms/ Coffee showers in Kerala and some part of Karanataka

Geographical Distribution

• In India, coffee is cultivated in about 4.54 lakh hectares by 3.66 lakh coffee farmers of which 98% are small farmers.
• The cultivation is mainly done in the Southern States of India:
  • Karnataka – 54%
  • Kerala – 19%
  • Tamil Nadu – 8%
• It is also grown in non-traditional areas like Andhra Pradesh and Odisha (17.2%) and North East States (1.8%).
• India is the only country in the world where the entire coffee cultivation is grown under shade, hand-picked and sun dried.
• India produces some of the best coffee in the world, grown by tribal farmers in the Western and Eastern Ghats,which are the two major biodiversity hotspots in the world.
• Indian coffee is highly valued in the world market and is sold as premium coffee in Europe.
• India ranks 6th among the world’s 80 coffee producing countries, with some of the finest robusta and some top-notch arabica cultivated.
• Nearly 70% of India’s coffee is exported, largely to European and Asian markets.
• Coffee in India is traditionally grown in the rainforests of the Western Ghats in South India, covering Chikmagalur, Kodagu (Coorg), Wayanad, the Shevaroy Hills and the Nilgiris.

India cultivates all of its coffee under a well-defined two-tier mixed shade canopy, comprising evergreen leguminous trees. Nearly 50 different types of shade trees are found in coffee plantations. Shade trees prevent soil erosion on a sloping terrain; they enrich the soil by recycling nutrients from deeper layers, protect the coffee plant from seasonal fluctuations in temperature, and play host to diverse flora and fauna.

Coffee plantations in India are essential spice worlds too: a wide variety of spices and fruit crops like pepper, cardamom, vanilla, orange and banana grow alongside coffee plants.

India’s coffee growing regions have diverse climatic conditions, which are well suited for cultivation of different varieties of coffee. Some regions with high elevations are ideally suited for growing Arabicas of mild quality while those with warm humid conditions are best suited for Robustas.

About Coffee Board:

• The Government of India established the ‘Coffee Board’ through a constitutional act “Coffee Act VII of 1942”
• Until 1995 the Coffee Board marketed the coffee of a pooled supply. Later, coffee marketing became a private-sector activity due to the economic liberalisation in India.
• It is under the administrative control of Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
• The Board comprises 33 members including the Chairman, who is the Chief Executive and appointed by the Government of India.
• Role of Coffee Board: Coffee Board serves as the friend, philosopher and guide to the Coffee sector covering the entire value chain. The core activities are primarily directed towards research & development, transfer of technology, enhancement of production, quality improvement, export promotion and supporting development of Domestic market.
• The head office of the Coffee Board is situated in Bangalore.
• International Coffee Day is on 1st October.

4. Hepatitis B is a public health concern in India; but very few know about its transmission, effects & vaccination

Subject: Science and tech

Section: Health 

Context:

• A study by Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, New Delhi, revealed that public knowledge about Hepatitis B is significantly lacking in India, with only 25% of respondents possessing adequate knowledge about the disease. This includes understanding its transmission methods, effects on the liver, and the importance of vaccination.

Disparities in Vaccination Uptake:

• The study identified disparities in vaccination uptake influenced by gender, education levels, and the urban-rural divide.
• These disparities underscore the need for increased vaccination efforts and making these initiatives accessible to all population segments, especially those most at risk.

Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) Infection:

• Hepatitis B is an infection in the liver which happens because of the Hepatitis B virus or HBV.
• The virus usually spreads through blood, semen or other body fluids.
• HBV is a major health concern globally and nationally, affecting approximately 296 million people and resulting in around 887,000 deaths annually due to complications like end-stage liver cirrhosis and liver cancer.
• Despite the availability of an effective vaccine for over 30 years, infection rates remain high, particularly in countries with lower socio-demographic indices like India.

Symptoms:

• The most common symptoms of Hepatitis B are jaundice, fever, fatigue that lasts for weeks or even months, vomiting, loss of appetite, and pain in joints or belly.
• When it is acute, the virus lasts a small time and doesn’t always necessarily need treatments although it can get serious and lead to life-threatening diseases like organ scarring, liver failure and even cancer.

Prevention:

• It can be prevented or protected against through vaccination.

Source: DTE

5. El Nino impact leaves Malawi and region on the edge of a hunger crisis

Subject: IR

Section: Places in news

Context:

• Malawi has declared a state of disaster due to severe drought conditions affecting 23 of its 28 districts. The country’s President has announced an urgent need for over $200 million in humanitarian assistance to address the crisis.

Regional Impact:

• This announcement follows a similar appeal from Zambia, and Zimbabwe is also considering declaring a drought disaster.
• These developments come amid warnings from the U.N. World Food Programme (WFP) about a potential hunger crisis in southern Africa, driven by the El Niño weather phenomenon and one of the driest spells in decades.
• Nearly 50 million people in southern and parts of central Africa are facing food insecurity, exacerbated by significant rainfall deficits in countries like Malawi, Mozambique, and parts of Angola.
• Both Malawi and Zambia are currently experiencing major cholera outbreaks, underscoring the health challenges compounded by the drought crisis.
• The Horn of Africa (Ethiopia, Eritria, Djibouti and Somalia) is currently facing the worst drought in 40 years after five seasons of poor rainfall.

El Niño and Climate Change:

• El Niño, a natural weather pattern causing below-average rainfall in southern Africa, is believed to be intensified by climate change, resulting in more extreme impacts. The 2015-2016 El Niño led to the region’s worst drought in 35 years.

Region of Africa facing severe droughts:

Source: TH

6. Why does the weakness of low durability dog newer vaccines?

Subject: IR

Section: Places in news

Context:

• The measles vaccine is highly effective, often providing lifelong protection against the disease, which is not common among most vaccines.

Details:

• A review of 34 licensed vaccines revealed that only five offer protection for over 20 years, and just three, including the measles vaccine, provide lifelong immunity.
• Fifteen of these vaccines offer 5-20 years of protection, while the remaining ones have a much shorter efficacy, typically around five years or less.
• Notably, the majority of new-generation vaccines tend to have a shorter duration of protection.

Different immune response:

• The process of developing immunity after vaccination is intricate and involves the generation of memory B cells by our lymph nodes, which remember the antigens introduced by vaccines and produce potent antibodies when encountering these antigens again.
• These memory B cells require T cell support to be produced, and not all vaccines stimulate this necessary response.
• Some vaccines, such as those for typhoid and pneumococcal diseases, do not prompt the body to create B cells, leading to the need for frequent boosters to maintain immunity.
• The presence of memory B cells alone does not guarantee immunity; for some vaccines, like those for measles and rubella, the level of these cells remains consistent over decades, correlating with long-term antibody levels.
• However, this is not true for all vaccines, indicating that another mechanism, involving long-lasting plasma cells (LLPCs) that reside in the bone marrow and can last for decades, plays a crucial role in sustained immunity.
• Achieving long-term protection involves generating both memory B cells and LLPCs, with differences in vaccine efficacy largely due to their varying abilities to produce these cells.

Explaining the disparity in durability:

• The durability of vaccine-induced protection is influenced by three primary factors: vaccine-related, target pathogen-related, and host-related elements.

1. Vaccine-related factors: Live viral vaccines (e.g., measles, rubella, yellow fever) and virus-like particle (VLP) platforms (e.g., HPV vaccines) generally offer longer-lasting protection compared to killed pathogen or subunit vaccines. The timing between doses, such as a six-month interval for hepatitis B vaccines, and the use of adjuvants, like TLR agonists, are crucial for a robust and lasting immune response.
2. Target pathogen-related factors: The characteristics of the pathogen, including its incubation period and genetic stability, significantly impact immunity duration. For instance, viruses with shorter incubation periods (like influenza and SARS-CoV-2) offer limited time for an effective immune response, leading to shorter immunity periods. Conversely, pathogens with longer incubation times or those causing more prolonged infections tend to result in more durable immunity. The genetic stability of the virus also plays a role; RNA viruses with high mutation rates, such as influenza and SARS-CoV-2, require frequent vaccine updates.
3. Host-related factors: The age and gender of the individual, along with other physiological factors like obesity, can influence the persistence of vaccine-induced antibodies. Even the time of day the vaccine is administered affects immune response, with morning vaccinations proving more effective due to the circadian clock’s impact on immune functions.

• Advances in bioengineering are introducing new strategies to enhance vaccine durability, such as nanoparticle and VLP technologies, controlled antigen delivery, and targeted adjuvant activation. These innovations aim to develop vaccines that provide long-lasting protection with fewer doses by better understanding and leveraging the mechanisms of immune response durability.

7. UN passes resolution calling for ceasefire in Gaza during Ramadan

Subject: IR

Section: Int organisation

Context:

• The United Nations Security Council on Monday demanded a cease-fire in Gaza during the Muslim holy month of Ramadan, its first demand to halt fighting.

More on news:

• The United States abstained on the resolution, which also demanded the release of all hostages taken captive during Hamas’ Oct. 7 surprise attack in southern Israel. 
• The vote comes after Russia and China vetoed a U.S.-sponsored resolution Friday that would have supported “an immediate and sustained cease-fire” in the Israeli-Hamas conflict.
• Areas in news:

Gaza:

• The Gaza Strip or simply Gaza, is a self-governing Palestinian territory.
• It is located on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, that borders Egypt on the southwest and Israel on the east and north border.
• Gaza and the West Bank are claimed by the de jure sovereign State of Palestine.
• The territories of Gaza and the West Bank are separated from each other by Israeli territory.
• Both fell under the jurisdiction of the Palestinian Authority, but the strip has since the Battle of Gaza in June 2007 been governed by Hamas, a Palestinian fundamentalist militant Islamic organization which came to power in the last-held elections in 2006.
• It has been placed under an Israeli and US-led international economic and political boycott from that time onwards.

8. For the IS, Russia is an enemy that destroyed its plans in Syria

Subject: IR

Section: Places in news

Context:

• In recent years, the IS has released several propaganda videos, saying Russians had ‘the blood of Muslims on their hands’ in Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Syria.

More on news:

• The group uses these videos to radicalize and recruit youth in Central Asian countries.
• In the 1990s and early 2000s, Russia witnessed a series  of terror attacks, mostly by Chechen militants. 
• In recent years the IS-K has emerged as the most powerful branch of the IS networks.

Russia’s role:

• One of the early promises of Vladimir Putin, who rose to power in the late 1990s, was that he would crush the terrorists and restore order.
• For many Russians, the Crocus City Hall shooting of March 22 in the outskirts of Moscow, in which at least 137 people were killed, brought back memories of the period of terror.
• But today, it’s facing a new jihadist threat — the Islamic State, which has claimed responsibility for the Concert Hall attack.

Syrian intervention:

• The IS sees Russia as a key enemy because the Russian intervention in Syria in 2015 was one of the pivotal factors that turned the Syrian civil war in favor of the regime of President Bashar al-Assad.
• In 2017, when the IS seized the Syrian city of Palmyra, Russia’s Wagner, along with Syrian troops, liberated the city. 
• The IS was founded in the midst of the Syrian civil war in 2014, and one of the early cities it captured was Raaqa in eastern Syria. 
• It wanted to topple President Assad and capture Damascus, the seat of power of the Umayyad Caliphate.
• Today, Russia also supports regimes in West Africa such as Mali, which are fighting different jihadist groups.

About Syria:

• Syria is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. 
• It is bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east and southeast, Jordan to the south, and Israel and Lebanon to the southwest. 
• Cyprus lies to the west across the Mediterranean Sea. 
• It is a unitary republic that consists of 14 governorates (subdivisions). 
• A country of fertile plains, high mountains, and deserts, Syria is home to diverse ethnic and religious groups, including the majority Arabs, Kurds, Turkmens, Assyrians, Circassians, Armenians, Albanians, Greeks, and Chechens. 
• Religious groups include Muslims, Christians, Alawites, Druze, and Yazidis. 
• The capital and largest city is Damascus, followed by Aleppo, Homs, Latakia, Hama, Deirezor, and Raqqa.
• Arabs are the largest ethnic group, and Sunni Muslims are the largest religious group.
• Syria is now the only country that is governed by Baathists, who advocate Arab socialism and Arab nationalism.

9. U.K. issues online ads to deter illegal Channel crossings

Subject: IR

Section: Places in news

Context:

• The U.K. on Monday launched a new global social media campaign, aimed at Vietnam in particular, to deter migrants from trying to cross the Channel from northern France on small boats.

More on news:

• It comes as statistics showed the number of arrivals using the hazardous and highly contentious route up by 15% so far this year compared to the same period in 2023.
• An increasing proportion of “small boat” arrivals hail from Vietnam, with the southeast Asian nation among the top 10 nationalities for migrants crossing the Channel, according to the U.K. Interior Ministry.
• Prime Minister Rishi Sunak has made “stopping the boats” one of his top priorities, and claimed to be succeeding when they fell by around a third last year.

About Online Adverts:

• The new online adverts, which feature real testimonies from those who have previously made the dangerous journeys are being posted on Facebook and YouTube to target Vietnamese migrants.
• They also warn prospective migrants of “the reality” of living in Britain “with no right to be in
• the U.K. and no access to public services or funding”.
• It follows a similar campaign last year targeting migrants from Albania, which contributed to a
• 90% reduction in arrivals from the Balkan country.

About English Channel:

• The English Channel is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that separates Southern England from northern France and links to the southern part of the North Sea by the Strait of Dover at its northeastern end. It is the busiest shipping area in the world.
• The Channel was a key factor in Britain becoming a naval superpower and has been utilized by Britain as a natural defense mechanism through which they halted many would-be invasions, such as the Napoleonic Wars and those of Adolf Hitler in World War II.
• The population around the English Channel is predominantly located on the English coast and the major languages spoken in this region are French and English.

10. On campaigning in the name of religion

Subject: Polity

Section: Elections

Context:

• Recently the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) lodged a complaint with the Election Commission of India (ECI) against Rahul Gandhi for hurting the sentiments of Hindus through his remark on ‘shakti’.

What does the law say?

• Section 123(3) of the Representation of the People Act, 1951 (RP Act) provides that appeals by a candidate, or any other person with the consent of a candidate, to vote or refrain from voting on the ground of his religion, race, caste, community or language is a corrupt electoral practice. 
• Section 123(3A) denounces any attempt by a candidate to promote feelings of enmity or hatred among citizens on these grounds during elections. 
• The RP Act further provides that anyone found guilty of corrupt electoral practice can be debarred from contesting elections for a maximum period of up to six years.

What does the MCC provide?

• The Model Code of Conduct (MCC) for the guidance of political parties and candidates is a set of norms which has evolved with the consensus of political parties. 
• They have consented to abide by the principles embodied in the said code.
• It binds them to respect and observe it in its letter and spirit. 
• This code  provides that no party or candidate shall indulge in any activity which may aggravate existing differences or create mutual hatred or cause tension between different castes, religious or linguistic communities.
• It also provides that there shall be no appeal to caste or communal feelings for securing votes.
• Mosques, churches, temples or other places of worship shall not be used as a forum for election propaganda.
• Though the MCC does not have any statutory backing, it has come to acquire strength in the past three decades because of its strict enforcement by the ECI.

What has been the history?

• It is pertinent to note that before 1961, Section 123(3) of the RP Act provided that ‘systemic’ appeal by a candidate on the grounds of religion, race, caste or community would amount to a corrupt electoral practice. 
• However, in order to curb communal, fissiparous and separatist tendencies, the word ‘systemic’ was omitted through an amendment in 1961.
• This meant that even a stray appeal for success in the elections on the ground of one’s religion or narrow communal affiliation would be viewed with disfavor by the law.
• The ECI has barred leaders from campaigning, for violation of the MCC, for a short period of two to three days.

What has the Supreme Court ruled?

• In Abhiram Singh versus C. D. Commachen (2017) a seven-judge Bench by a majority of 4:3 held that candidates shall not appeal for votes on the basis of not just his/her religion but also that of the voters. 
• The majority view provided a ‘purposive interpretation’ to Section 123(3) rather than just a literal one thereby rendering any appeal in the name of religion of even the voters as a corrupt electoral practice. 
• The elections to Parliament or State legislatures are a secular exercise; constitutional ethos forbids the mixing of religious considerations with the secular functions of the State.
• Religion should remain a matter of personal faith.

What is needed?

• Political parties and candidates are likely to raise legitimate concerns of citizens faced by them on the basis of traits having origin in religion, caste, community or language in a democratic election process.

11. How are semiconductors fabricated?

Subject: Science and tech

Section: Awareness in IT and computer

What are semiconductors?

• Semiconductors represent a distinct class of materials that possess some of the electrical properties of both conductors and insulators.
• Like a faucet can be used to control the flow of water, semiconductors can be used to control the flow of electric currents, and with exquisite precision.

 Semiconductor tech: What exactly is India going to manufacture?

• The most important type of a semiconductor is the transistor. 
• At the dawn of the era of modern electronics, the first integrated circuits featured four transistors. 
• Together, they controlled the flow of currents in such a way that the circuits could perform simple arithmetic operations.
• Today, we have single chips boasting billions of transistors.
• Fitting so many transistors on a tiny chip no bigger than a fingernail requires extreme precision and a microscopic eye for detail.
• For instance, the accuracy required is equivalent to dividing a strand of human hair into a thousand segments each of specific width, and further subdividing each segment into a hundred parts.
• This is why fabricating semiconductors involves cutting-edge technology and science.

How are semiconductors made?

• The process starts with an engineer carefully selecting a silicon wafer as the foundation on which the semiconductor will be built. A team puts silicon, sourced from sand, through a meticulous purification process to separate it from other substances, until they have an ultra-pure wafer with impurity levels as low as a few parts per billion. (This percentage is comparable to an error of merely 1 cm when measuring the earth’s diameter.)
• Next is the photolithography process – a crucial step that carves the circuit pattern on the wafer.
• The wafer is coated with a light-sensitive material called a photoresist.
• Then, a mask is held in front of the wafer and light is shined on it.
• The mask contains small gaps in the shape of the circuit pattern.
• The light passes through these gaps and erodes the underlying parts of the photoresist.
• As a result, the photoresist on the wafer ‘acquires’ the pattern of the transistor circuits.
• Following photolithography, engineers use chemical and/or physical techniques to remove the uncarved parts of the photoresist, leaving behind the circuit’s structure on the silicon substrate.
• Then they dope the semiconductor – i.e. deliberately add impurities to specific parts of the semiconductor to alter its electrical properties, and deposit thin layers of materials such as metals or insulators to the wafer’s surface to form electrical connections or insulate components.
• Then the resulting product is packaged – individual chips are separated, encapsulated, and tested to make sure they’re functional and reliable – and finally integrated into electronic devices.

What does the fabrication landscape look like?

• Each step in semiconductor fabrication demands ultra-high precision and harnesses a blend of diverse scientific principles.
• To achieve this, the High NA EUV machine made by the Dutch company ASML uses a cannon to shoot a 50-micrometer blob of liquid tin at 300 km/hr through a vacuum chamber, where laser beams blast it with enough energy to form a plasma that finally emits the requisite wavelength of radiation.
• India boasts a leading role in chip design centered in Bengaluru.

How do semiconductors benefit us?

• Smartphones and computers showcase the pinnacle of semiconductor technology but semiconductors influence nearly every facet of our lives.
• Semiconductors also power ‘smart’ air-conditioners’ ability to regulate the temperature as well as space telescopes’ ability to  capture both awe-inspiring and scientifically interesting images in the depths of the universe, and many other technologies in between

12. Apple, Google, Meta targeted in EU’s first Digital Markets Act probes

Subject: Science and tech

Section: Space sector

Context:

• The European Union is investigating Apple, Google, and Meta for potential violations of the new Digital Markets Act, which aims to curb the power of big tech companies and create a more level playing field for smaller businesses.

More on news:

• The European Union law, effective from March 7, aims to challenge the power of the tech giants by making it easier for people to move between competing online services like social media platforms, internet browsers and app stores. 
• That should in turn open up space for smaller companies to compete.
• Violations could result in fines of as much as 10% of the companies’ global annual turnover. U.S. antitrust regulators are also challenging Big Tech over alleged anti-competitive practices in a crackdown that could even lead to companies being broken up.

Apple Compliance:

• At issue is whether Apple complies with obligations to allow users to easily uninstall software applications on its iOS operating system, to change default settings on iOS or access choice screens allowing them to switch to a rival browser or search engine on iPhones.
• Another concern for regulators is “steering”: whether Apple imposes limitations that hinder app developers from informing users about offers outside its App Store free of charge.
• The EU executive, which aims to wrap up the investigations within a year, the timeframe set out under the DMA, said it has ordered the companies to retain certain documents, allowing them to access relevant information in its current and future probes.
• The EU investigations came amid escalating criticism from apps developers and business users about shortcomings in the companies’ compliance efforts.

Digital Markets Act 

• It applies to the ‘gatekeepers’ in the online space. These companies will have to comply with the new rules.
• The Digital Markets Act (DMA) entered into force in the European Union (EU) on November 1 2022.
• It introduces quantitative thresholds and penal provisions to keep a check on large digital platforms.
• It opens up possibilities of an equal market – based on the merits of their products and services.
• As for consumers it ensures access to a wider array of options as well as a lower price of services by enforcing competition and de-exclusivities.
• The Act designates companies with sizeable dominance in any of the ‘core platform services’ as ‘gatekeepers’. 
  • These services include app stores, online search engines, social networking services, certain messaging services, video sharing platform services, virtual assistants, web browsers, cloud computing services, operating systems, online marketplaces and advertising services.
• What is the quantitative threshold to be deemed a ‘gatekeeper’? 
  • an annual turnover of at least €7.5 billion within the EU in the past three years, or a market valuation of at least €75 billion
  • over 45 million monthly end-users
  • at least 10,000 business users established in the EU.
• The rules state that users will have the right to choose and install their apps and will not be forced to use  software by default when installing the OS and web browsers.
• It provides “interoperability”–mean that a user on WhatsApp and one on iMessage should be able to talk to each other
• Obligations on gatekeepers:
  • Gatekeepers must “allow the installation and effective use of third party software applications or software application stores”.
  • Gatekeepers cannot establish unfair conditions for business users or require app developers to use certain services in order to be listed in app stores.
  • Gatekeepers will have to give sellers access to their marketing or ad performance data on the platform.
  • The gatekeepers will have to inform the European Commission of their acquisitions and mergers.
  • The new rules also forbid the gatekeepers from ranking their own products or services higher than others, and from reusing private data collected during a service for the purposes of another service.
  • A proportionate subset of obligations for a non-gatekeeper, attains the stipulated threshold in the future to prevent them from acquiring the same ‘gatekeeper dominance’ by unfair means.
• What happens when rules are violated? 
• Violators can be fined up to 10 percent of the company’s global annual sales,  rising to 20 per cent for repeated infringements.
• In worst case scenarios, they could even be banned from any further acquisitions

13. Agnikul’s maiden test launch of Agnibaan Sorted mission postponed

Subject: Science and tech

Section: Space sector

Context:

• The Agnibaan SOrTeD (Suborbital Tech Demonstrator) was scheduled for a test-fire on Friday from a dedicated launch pad at Sriharikota.

More on news:

• The much-anticipated launch of the Agnibaan SOrTeD rocket by Chennai-based space startup Agnikul Cosmos has been postponed.
• Agnikul Cosmos has been at the forefront of India’s burgeoning private space sector

About Agnibaan:

• The Agnibaan SOrTeD (Suborbital Tech Demonstrator) was scheduled for a test-fire on Friday from a dedicated launch pad at Sriharikota.
• This mission was set to mark several firsts for India – it would have been the country’s first launch from a private launch pad, utilizing the world’s first single-piece 3D printed engine, the Agnilet, designed and built indigenously by Agnikul.
• The rocket, weighing 580 kilograms, aimed to reach an altitude of 20 kilometers above the Earth before descending into the Bay of Bengal, carrying up to 7 kg of payloads.
• Agnikul Cosmos has been at the forefront of India’s burgeoning private space sector, with ambitions to provide customisable and transportable launch vehicles for small satellites to Low Earth Orbits (LEO).
• The Agnibaan rocket, capable of carrying up to 100kg to orbits around 700 km high, represents a significant step towards achieving this goal.
• Its unique propulsion system, powered by a semi-cryogenic engine using Aircraft Turbine Fuel and liquid oxygen, sets a new standard in the industry.