Daily Prelims Notes 5 February 2022

February 5, 2022
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Daily Prelims Notes

5 February 2022

Table Of Contents

1. FREEDOM OF RELIGION

TOPIC: Indian Polity

Context- A Karnataka school’s denial of entry to six girls in hijab throws the spotlight on freedom of religion.

Concept-

How is religious freedom protected under the Constitution?

Article 25:
- Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice, and propagation of religion.
- The provisions of this article are not absolute. State can take appropriate measures when it comes to public order, health, and morality;
- For example; the state can take measures to open Hindu religious places for all sections of the Hindu society. (The intervention done by the state in recent matters like the ‘triple talaq’ and ‘Sabarimala temple entry’ are associated with these provisions)
Article 26:
- Freedom To Manage Religious Affairs-As per the provisions of this article all religious communities have the following rights (subject to morality, health, and public order);
  - They have the right to form and maintain religious and charitable institutions.
  - They have the right to manage their own religious affairs.
  - They have the right to acquire property of both immovable and movable kind.
  - They have the right to administer these properties subjected to the provisions of law.
- Article 27:
  - Freedom to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion
  - As per the provisions of this article people are free to give taxes for the religious promotion of any religion they want.
  - However, the State cannot force the people to pay taxes for the promotion and maintenance of any religion or religious institution.
- Article 28:
  - Freedom to attend religious instructions or religious worship in certain educational institutions.
  - According to this article the institutions which are runned by particular religious groups have the right to give religious instructions.
  - The educational institutions that are receiving the state funding are not allowed to practice religious instructions.
  - If an institution has been run by the state but established as an endowment or trust which required religious instructions to be given there, are exempted from this restriction, and allowed to give such instructions.
  - The person belonging to the state-run institution or the one which is funded by the state’s aid, cannot be compelled to join religious instructions or worship etc. without his/her consent.

What is the essential religious practices test?

In 1954, the Supreme Court held in the Shirur Mutt case that the term “religion” will cover all rituals and practices “integral” to a religion. The test to determine what is integral is termed the “essential religious practices” test.
In several instances, the court has applied the test to keep certain practices out. In a 2004 ruling, the Supreme Court held that the Ananda Marga sect had no fundamental right to perform Tandava dance in public streets, since it did not constitute an essential religious practice of the sect.

2. WETLANDS

TOPIC: Environment

Context- The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands has designated Khijadiya Bird Sanctuary near Jamnagar in Gujarat and Bakhira Wildlife Sanctuary in Uttar Pradesh as wetlands of international importance.

Concept-

With the addition of these two wetlands, the number of Ramsar Sites in India has gone up to 49, the highest for any country in South Asia.

Definitions of wetlands

The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands defines wetlands as “areas of marsh, fen, peat land or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters.”
However, the Indian government’s definition of wetland excludes river channels, paddy fields and other areas where commercial activity takes place.
The Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017 notified by the Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change define wetlands as “area of marsh, fen, peatland or water; whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters, but does not include river channels, paddy fields, human-made water bodies/ tanks specifically constructed for drinking water purposes and structures specifically constructed for aquaculture, salt production, recreation and irrigation purposes.”
- Not every Ramsar Site is a notified protected area under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

Wetlands Cover

Globally, wetlands cover 4 per cent of the geographical area of the world.
In India, according to the National Wetland Inventory and Assessment compiled by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), wetlands are spread over 1,52,600 square kilometres (sq km) which is 63 per cent of the total geographical area of the country.
- Of the 1,52,600 sq km, inland-natural wetlands account for 43.4% and
- coastal-natural wetlands 24.3%.
- In state-wise distribution of wetlands, Gujarat is at the top with 17.56 percent of total geographical area of the state), or 22.7 percent of total wetlands areas of the country thanks to a long coastline followed by Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal.

Global leaders

The countries with the most Ramsar Sites are the United Kingdom (175) and Mexico (142), as per the Ramsar List.
Bolivia has the largest area with 148,000 sq km under the Convention protection.

3. NEW IT RULES

TOPIC: Polity

Context- The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology as well as the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting had notified rules and guidelines to hold social media and over-the-top (OTT) content platforms more accountable for the “misuse and abuse” of the content hosted on their platforms.

Concept-

These new rules broadly deal with social media and over-the-top (OTT) platforms.
These rules have been framed in exercise of powers under section 87 (2) of the Information Technology (IT) Act, 2000 and in supersession of the earlier Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines) Rules 2011.

New Guidelines for Social Media/Intermediaries:

Categories of Social Media Intermediaries: Based on the number of users, on the social media platform intermediaries have been divided in two groups:
1. Social media intermediaries.
2. Significant social media intermediaries.
Due Diligence to be Followed by Intermediaries: In case, due diligence is not followed by the intermediary, safe harbour provisions will not apply to them.
1. The safe harbour provisions have been defined under Section 79 of the IT Act, and protect social media intermediaries by giving them immunity from legal prosecution for any content posted on their platforms.
Grievance Redressal Mechanism is Mandatory: Grievance Officer shall acknowledge the complaint within twenty four hours and resolve it within fifteen days from its receipt.
Ensuring Online Safety and Dignity of Users: Intermediaries shall remove or disable access within 24 hours of receipt of complaints of contents that exposes the private areas of individuals, show such individuals in full or partial nudity or in sexual act or is in the nature of impersonation including morphed images etc. Such a complaint can be filed either by the individual or by any other person on his/her behalf.
Need to appoint Chief Compliance Officer, a Nodal Contact Person and a Resident Grievance Officer, all of whom should be resident in India.
Need to publish a monthly compliance report mentioning the details of complaints received and action taken on the complaints as well as details of contents removed proactively.
Enabling Identity of the Originator: Significant social media intermediaries providing services primarily in the nature of messaging shall enable identification of the first originator of the information.
Removal of Unlawful Information: An intermediary upon receiving actual knowledge in the form of an order by a court or being notified by the Appropriate Govt. or its agencies through authorized officer should not host or publish any information which is prohibited under any law in relation to the interest of the sovereignty and integrity of India, public order, friendly relations with foreign countries etc.

Rules for News Publishers and OTT Platforms and Digital Media:

For OTT:

Self-Classification of Content: The OTT platforms, called as the publishers of online curated content in the rules, would self-classify the content into five age based categories- U (Universal), U/A 7+, U/A 13+, U/A 16+, and A (Adult).
Parental Lock: Platforms would be required to implement parental locks for content classified as U/A 13+ or higher, and reliable age verification mechanisms for content classified as “A”.

For Publishers of News on Digital Media :

They would be required to observe Norms of Journalistic Conduct of the Press Council of India and the Programme Code under the Cable Television Networks Regulation Act 1995 thereby providing a level playing field between the offline (Print, TV) and digital media.
Grievance Redressal Mechanism: A three-level grievance redressal mechanism has been established under the rules with different levels of self-regulation.
1. Level-I: Self-regulation by the publishers;
2. Level-II: Self-regulation by the self-regulating bodies of the publishers;
3. Level-III: Oversight mechanism.
Self-regulation by the Publisher: Publisher shall appoint a Grievance Redressal Officer based in India who shall be responsible for the redressal of grievances received by it. The officer shall take decision on every grievance received by it within 15 days.
Self-Regulatory Body: There may be one or more self-regulatory bodies of publishers.
1. Such a body shall be headed by a retired judge of the SC, a High Court or independent eminent person and have not more than six members.
2. Such a body will have to register with the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting.

4. FAST TRACKING VANDE BHARAT

TOPIC: Economy

Context- The Budget has announced 400 more of these semi-high-speed trains in the next 3 years.

Concept-

What’s Vande Bharat

The Train18, later named Vande Bharat is a semi-high speed trainset, each of 16 coaches, and self-propelled — they do not require an engine.
This is called a distributed traction power system, which is increasingly becoming the norm the world over for passenger operations.
- Distributed power gives the train higher acceleration and deceleration compared to loco-hauled trains, which take a much longer time to reach top speed or to gradually come to a halt.
The current Vande Bharat trains have seating only in two classes — chair car and executive chair car. Railways is already in the process of making 102 new VandeBharats, which will be an upgrade from the current two Vande Bharat train sets.
Railways is looking at making several of these trainsets with aluminium instead of steel. An aluminium body will make each train set around 40-80 tonnes lighter than a current Vande Bharat.

5. Z- CATEGORY SECURITY

TOPIC: Security Issues

Context- AIMIM president and Hyderabad MP Asaduddin Owaisi ‘Z’ category security accorded to him by the Union Ministry of Home Aﬀairs (MHA).

The MHA had sanctioned the security cover to Mr. Owaisi a day after two men ﬁred bullets at his vehicle near the Chajarsi toll plaza in Uttar Pradesh’s Hapur district.

Concept-

In India, security details are provided to some high-risk individuals by the police and state government.
Depending on the threat perception to the person, the category is divided into four tiers: Z+ (highest level), Z, Y and X.
Individuals under this security blanket include the President, Vice-President, Prime-Minister, Supreme Court and High Court Judges, Service Chiefs of Indian Armed Forces, Governors of State, Chief Ministers and Cabinet Ministers.

SPG Category:

Strength of security detail is classified (only provided to the Prime Minister of India.)
The SPG (Special Protection Group), NSG (National Security Guards), ITBP (Indo-Tibetan Border Police) and CRPF (Central Reserve Police Force) are the agencies responsible for providing securities to VVIPs, VIPs, politicians, high-profile celebrities and sportspersons.
The NSG is used extensively to guard VIPs and VVIPs, especially those in the Z+ category.
Many NSG personnel are seconded to the Special Protection Group (SPG) which guards the Prime Minister.

Z+ Category:

It has a security cover of 55 personnel [Including 10+ NSG Commando] + [Police Personnel]
The Z+ level of security is provided by National Security Guard commandos.

Z Category:

It has a security cover of 22 personnel [Including 4 or 5 NSG Commando] + [Police Personnel]
The ‘Z’ category entails security cover by the Delhi police or the ITBP or CRPF personnel and one escort car.

Y category:

It has a security cover of 11 personnel [Including 1 or 2 Commando] + [Police Personnel]
The ‘Y’ category encompasses two personal security officers (PSOs) and one PSO from the ‘X’ category.

X Category:

It has a security cover of 2 personnel [No Commando, Only Armed Police Personnel]

6. COMMITTEE ON MINIMUM SUPPORT PRICE

TOPIC: Agriculture

Context- The committee on Minimum Support Prices, crop diversiﬁcation and other issues promised to the farmers by Prime Minister Narendra Modi, will be set up after the upcoming Assembly elections.

Concept-

Minimum Support Price

The MSP is the rate at which the government buys grains from farmers.
Currently, it fixes MSPs for 23 crops grown in both Kharif and Rabi

Fixation of MSP:

The MSP is fixed on the recommendations of the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP).
After receiving the feed-back from them, the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) of the Union government takes a final decision on the level of MSPs and other recommendations made by the CACP.

Factors taken into consideration for fixing MSP include:

Demand and supply;
Cost of production (A2 + FL method)
Price trends in the market, both domestic and international;
Inter-crop price parity;
Terms of trade between agriculture and non-agriculture;
A minimum of 50% as the margin over cost of production; and
Likely implications of MSP on consumers of that product.

Procurement:

The Food Corporation of India (FCI), the nodal central agency of the Government of India, along with other State Agencies undertakes procurement of crops.

Issues Associated with India’s MSP Regime

Limited Extent: As against the official announcement of MSP for 23 crops, only two, rice and wheat, are procured as these are distributed in NFSA. For the rest, it is mostly ad-hoc and insignificant.
Ineffectively Implemented: The Shanta Kumar Committee, in its report in 2015, stated that only 6% of the MSP could be received by the farmers, which directly means that 94% of the farmers in the country are deprived from the benefit of the MSP.
More of a Procurement Price: The current MSP regime has no relation to prices in the domestic market. Its sole raison d’être is to fulfil the requirements of NFSA making it effectively a procurement price rather than an MSP.
Makes Agriculture Wheat and Paddy Dominated: Skewed MSP dominated system of rice and wheat leads to overproduction of these crops and discourages farmers to grow other crops and horticulture products, which has higher demand and subsequently could lead to increase in farmers income.
Middlemen-Dependent: The MSP-based procurement system is also dependent on middlemen, commission agents and APMC officials, which smaller farmers find difficult to get access to.

7. DIGITAL CURRENCY & THEIR ECONOMIC VALUE

TOPIC: Economy

Context- Government has planned to launch digital currency.

Concept-

What is a digital currency?

Digital currency issued by the central bank is legal tender in digital form.
It is also often called Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC).
A digital currency is the same as a ﬁat currency and is exchangeable one-to-one with the ﬁat currency; only its form is different.
It appears as liability or currency in circulation on a Central bank’s balance sheet.
Now, with the rise of digital modes of payment, a digital currency is expected to provide a convenient alternative to physical cash.

Is India getting a digital currency?

Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman has in the Union Budget proposed to introduce a Digital Rupee, using blockchain and other technologies, which would be issued by the RBI.
The Finance Bill has proposed to amend Sections 2 and 22 of the RBI Act, 1934, to provide clarity that CBDC would also be regarded as banknotes.

Has any other country issued digital currency?

According to the Atlantic Council, at least nine countries have launched their own CBDC with Nigeria launching the e-Naira.
China too has launched its digital yuan.
The US Fed and the European Central Bank are also researching and working on their own CBDCs.

What is the difference between digital currency and cryptocurrency?

A digital currency is issued by the central bank while cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin and Ethereum are private and have no issuers as such.
Private cryptocurrencies are also unregulated and decentralised, and tend to be highly volatile.
In contrast, a CBDC will have the same value as paper currency and will be regulated and issued by a central bank.
However, both the Digital Rupee as well as private virtual currencies are based on blockchain technology.

Are cryptos such as Bitcoins and Ethereum legal in India?

The Union Budget 2022-23 has proposed a taxation scheme for virtual digital assets including cryptocurrencies and non-fungible tokens.
However, the Finance Minister has clariﬁed that taxing these assets does not automatically bring legitimacy.
A separate process of consultation is underway regarding their regulation A bill on this would be tabled in Parliament.

8. EX-GRATIA PAYMENT TO COVID-19 VICTIMS

TOPIC: Polity

Context- The Supreme Court Friday directed all state governments and Union Territories to appoint dedicated nodal oﬃcer to coordinate with the member secretary of the state legal service authority (SLSA) to facilitate payment of ex-gratia compensation to family members of Covid-19 victims.

Concept-

Ex-Gratia Payment:

An ex gratia payment is made to an individual by an organization, government, or insurer for damages or claims, but it does not require the admittance of liability by the party making the payment.
An ex gratia payment is considered voluntary because the party making the payment is not obligated to compensate the individual.
an ex gratia payment is a gesture of goodwill. The type of payment is made following a specific loss or damage to a property.

Legal Services Institutions for providing Free Legal Services:

National Legal Services Authority
1. The National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) was constituted under the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987
2. The Chief Justice of India is the Patron-in-Chief and the second senior most Judge of Supreme Court of India is the Executive Chairman of the Authority.
3. Article 39 A of the Constitution provides for free legal aid to the poor and weaker sections of the society, to promote justice on the basis of equal opportunity. Article 14 and Article 22 (1), obligates State to ensure equality before law.
State Legal Services Authority.
1. It is headed by the Chief Justice of the State High Court who is its Patron-in-Chief.
2. A serving or retired Judge of the High Court is nominated as its Executive Chairman.
District Legal Services Authority. The District Judge of the District is its ex-officio Chairman.
Taluka/ Sub-Division Level : Taluka/ Sub-Divisional Legal Services Committee. It is headed by a senior Civil Judge.
High Court Legal Services Committee
Supreme Court Legal Services Committee

9. GOLDEN LANGUR

TOPIC: Environment

Context- Neighbours of a golden langur habitat in western Assam’s Bongaigaon district have opposed a move by the State government to upgrade it to a wildlife sanctuary.

Concept-

Kakoijana Reserve Forest is one of the better-known homes of the golden langur (Trachypithecusgeei) found only in Assam and Bhutan and a Schedule-I species under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972. It is listed as among the world’s 25 most endangered primates.

Declaration of the Protected Area by the State government:

Initial notification: The State government may, by notification, declare its intention to constitute any area within or outside any reserve forest as a sanctuary/national park if it considers that such area is of adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural, or zoological significance, for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wildlife or its environment.
Final notification: After the initial notification has been issued and the period for preferring claims has elapsed, the State government may issue a notification specifying the limits of the area which can be comprised within the sanctuary and declare the said area shall be a sanctuary/national park from such date as may be specified in the notification.

Declaration by the Central government:

The Central Government may declare an area to be a sanctuary/national park if it is satisfied that the area is of adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural, or zoological significance, for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wildlife or its environment.

About Golden Langur:

Golden langurs can be most easily recognized by the color of their fur, after which they are named.
It is endemic to western Assam, India, and southern Bhutan.
Their habitat is restricted to the region surrounded by four geographical landmarks: the foothills of Bhutan (North), Manas river (East), Sankosh river (West), and Brahmaputra river (South).
Protection Status:
- IUCN List of Threatened Species: Endangered
- Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) : Appendix I
- Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 : Schedule I

10. NANO MISSION

TOPIC: Science & Tech

Context- Covid-19 mask to be developed under a DST-sponsored nano-mission.

ARCI developed copper-based nanoparticles of around 20 nanometres by a ‘Flame Spray Pyrolysis’ (FSP) processing facility.

Concept-

Nano Mission

The Government of India launched the Nano Mission in 2007 as an “umbrella capacity-building programme“.
It is being implemented by the Department of Science and Technology (DST) under the Ministry of Science and Technology.
The objectives of the mission are:
- Basic research promotion
- Infrastructure development
- Nano applications and technology development
- Human Resource development
- International collaborations
As a result of the efforts led by the Nano Mission, today, India is amongst the top five nations in the world in terms of scientific publications in nanoscience and technology (moving from 4th to the 3rd position).
The Nano Mission has established national dialogues to promote R&D in the development of standards for nanotechnology and for laying down a National Regulatory Framework Road-Map for Nanotechnology (NRFR-Nanotech).

‘Flame Spray Pyrolysis’ (FSP) processing facility

FSP process involves conversion of solution precursors into nano-powders by high temperature pyrolytic decomposition.
FSP process is a gas phase combustion synthesis method enabling the production of a broad range of materials in the form of nanostructured powders with high specific surface area and primary particle size in the range of few nanometers.
FSP is based on the exothermic combustion of a spray of a metallorganic liquid precursor.

11. DRONE RULES

TOPIC: Science & Tech

Context- The Union Ministry of Civil Aviation has requested several ministries, including the Ministry of Home Aﬀairs (MHA), to encourage various entities under their administrative control to promote the use of drones.

Concept-

About Drones:

It is a layman terminology for Unmanned Aircraft (UA).
Originally developed for the military and aerospace industries, drones have found their way into the mainstream because of the enhanced levels of safety and efficiency they bring.
Remotely piloted aircraft have been divided into five categories based on their weight (existing rules)-
- Nano: Less than or equal to 250 grams.
- Micro: From 250 grams to 2kg.
- Small: From 2 kg to 25kg.
- Medium: From 25kg to 150kg.
- Large: Greater than 150kg.

Draft Drone Rules, 2021

Abolish the need for various approvals, including certificate of conformance, certificate of maintenance, import clearance, acceptance of existing drones, operator permit, authorisation of R&D organisation and student remote pilot licence.
Digital Sky Platform: The government will be developing a digital sky platform that will have an interactive airspace map dividing the country into green, yellow, and red zones.
It will provide a secure and a scalable platform that supports drone technology frameworks, such as NPNT (no permission, no take-off), designed to enable flight permission digitally and manage unmanned aircraft operations and traffic efficiently.
Reduced Airport Perimeter: The draft rules reduced the airport perimeter from 45 km to 12 km.
Drone Corridor: The Ministry will also facilitate development of drone corridors for cargo deliveries and a drone promotion council will be set up to facilitate a business-friendly regulatory regime.
Safety Features: The draft rule also provides for safety features such as real-time tracking beacon, and geo-fencing, which are expected to be notified in future and a six-month lead time will be provided for compliance.
Increased Coverage of Drones: The coverage has been increased from 300 kg to 500 kg and will cover drone taxis, while the Issuance of Certificate of Airworthiness has been delegated to Quality Council of India and certification entities authorized by it.

12. PRIVATE MEMBER BILL

TOPIC: Polity

Context- Private Member Bill introduced in Rajya Sabha to repeal four labour codes.

Concept-

Private Member’s Bill:

Any Member of Parliament (MP) who is not a minister is referred to as a private member.
The purpose of private member’s bill is to draw the government’s attention to what individual MPs see as issues and gaps in the existing legal framework, which require legislative intervention. Thus it reflects the stand of the opposition party on public matters.
Its drafting is the responsibility of the member concerned.
Its introduction in the House requires one month’s notice.
The government bills can be introduced and discussed on any day, private member’s bills can be introduced and discussed only on Fridays.
Its rejection by the House has no implication on the parliamentary confidence in the government or its resignation.
The last time a private member’s bill was passed by both Houses was in 1970. It was the Supreme Court (Enlargement of Criminal Appellate Jurisdiction) Bill, 1968.
14 private member’s bills — five of which were introduced in Rajya Sabha — have become law so far.
Some other private member bills that have become laws include-

Proceedings of Legislature (Protection of Publication) Bill, 1956, in the Lok Sabha;
The Salaries and Allowances of Members of Parliament (Amendment) Bill, 1964, introduced by in the Lok Sabha and
The Indian Penal Code (Amendment) Bill, 1967 introduced in the Rajya Sabha.

13. UNIFORM CIVIL CODE (UCC)

TOPIC: Polity

Context-The new Law Commission could take up the issue of Uniform Civil Code.

Concept-

Uniform Civil Code:

UCC is one that would provide for one law for the entire country, applicable to all religious communities in their personal matters such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, adoption etc.
Article 44 of the Constitution lays down that the state shall endeavour to secure a UCC for the citizens throughout the territory of India.
Article 44 is one of the Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP).
DPSP as defined in Article 37, are not justiciable (not enforceable by any court) but the principles laid down therein are fundamental in governance.

Status of Uniform Codes in India:

Indian laws do follow a uniform code in most civil matters such as Indian Contract Act 1872, Civil Procedure Code, Transfer of Property Act 1882, Partnership Act 1932, Evidence Act, 1872 etc.

14. ICRISAT

In news:

Prime Minister Narendra Modi will kick off the Golden Jubilee celebrations of the International Crops Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) on February 5.

About:

The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) is an international organization which conducts agricultural research for rural development, headquartered in Patancheru (Hyderabad, Telangana, India) with several regional centers (Bamako (Mali), Nairobi (Kenya) and research stations (Niamey (Niger), Kano (Nigeria), Lilongwe (Malawi), Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), Bulawayo (Zimbabwe).
It was founded in 1972 by a consortium of organisations convened by the Ford and the Rockefeller foundations.
Its charter was signed by the FAO and the UNDP.
Since its inception, host country India has granted a special status to ICRISAT as a UN Organization operating in the Indian territory making it eligible for special immunities and tax privileges.
ICRISAT is managed by a full-time Director General functioning under the overall guidance of an international Governing Board.
ICRISAT adopts Integrated genetic and natural resources management as its overarching research strategy.
The aim is to combine tested methods of crop commodity research with well-established practices in research in natural resources management.
The original goal was to use crop improvement research as the basis to improve food availability in drought-prone areas of the tropics.

ICRISAT conducts its research under four themes:

Agro-ecosystems development,
Harnessing plant biotechnology and bioinformatics,
Crop improvement and management, and Institutions,
Markets, policy and Impacts.

The Semi-Arid Tropics:

The semi-arid tropics (SAT) region is characterised by highly variable, low-to-medium rainfall and poor soils, further characterised by lack of irrigation.
In general, the historical average annual rainfall in the SAT is below 700 mm. In agricultural policy terms, this region is considered to be a less favoured area (LFA).

15. Plastics

Topic: Environment

In news:

After years of largely neglecting the build-up of plastic waste in Earth’s environment, the U.N. Environment Assembly will meet in February and March in the hopes of drafting the first international treaty controlling global plastics pollution.

About:

The plastic crisis:

“Plastics are the largest, most harmful and most persistent fraction of marine litter, accounting for at least 85% of total marine waste.

N. figures assert that humanity uses 500 billion plastic bags and 17 million plastic oil barrels annually.
Some 13 million metric tons of plastic wind up in the oceans every year, and plastic kills 100,000 marine animals annually.
Another U.N. report, released in October, warned that “plastic production has risen exponentially in the last decades. It now amounts to some 400 million tonnes per year.
Yet only an estimated 12% of plastics produced have been incinerated and only an estimated 9% have been recycled.
Flows of plastic waste into aquatic ecosystems are expected to nearly triple from around 11 million tonnes in 2016 to around 29 million tonnes in 2040
According to a 2019 report from the Centre for International Environmental Law, all this plastic is also contributing heavily to climate change.
At current levels, greenhouse gas emissions from the plastic lifecycle threaten the ability of the global community to keep global temperature rise below 1.5°C [2.7°F].
“Plastic pollution can now be found everywhere, from the remote shores of the Arctic to the deepest parts of the ocean.
Up to 12 million tonnes of plastic leak into the marine environment annually, harming biodiversity and posing a threat to food security, sustainability and human health,” the Environmental Investigation Agency reported in 2020.